時間：2023-03-16 15:41:59
導(dǎo)語：在英語口語教學(xué)論文的撰寫旅程中，學(xué)習(xí)并吸收他人佳作的精髓是一條寶貴的路徑，好期刊匯集了九篇優(yōu)秀范文，愿這些內(nèi)容能夠啟發(fā)您的創(chuàng)作靈感，引領(lǐng)您探索更多的創(chuàng)作可能。
傳統(tǒng)的任課教師對學(xué)生的評價只是期末考試卷面分?jǐn)?shù)。后來改良為期末考成績與平時成績各占一定比例。平時成績沒有太多的根據(jù),往往是教師對學(xué)生的一個學(xué)期的總體印象而給出的分?jǐn)?shù)。有的學(xué)生心里不服,卻只能接受。長期采用這種評價方式和方法,會出現(xiàn)以下不利于學(xué)生成長的后果。
1.平時懶洋洋
學(xué)生平時上課無所謂,玩手機、睡覺、講話,不做作業(yè)。覺得自己底子薄,努力也沒有用,自暴自棄。
2.期末抱佛腳
學(xué)生為了期末考,不惜加夜班,點蠟燭,開手電筒,眼睛紅了,身體也熬壞了。
3.考試忙舞弊
期末考試采取偷看、夾帶、抄襲等舞弊手段,不正常地提高考試成績。任課教師雖然知道成績水分多,有時因為無憑無據(jù),也無可奈何,損傷了好學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)積極性。
那么對學(xué)生的評價要怎么改,才能公平、公正對待每個學(xué)生,又能找回學(xué)生的自信呢?我想到了新措施——讓學(xué)生“賺”分?jǐn)?shù)。“賺”的過程中,學(xué)生體驗成就感和自豪感,學(xué)習(xí)積極性被調(diào)動起來,尤其是對沒有太多自信的中職生,給他們打一針強心劑。記得我第一次提到“賺”這個字眼,學(xué)生非常興奮和好奇,趁熱打鐵,我宣布了“賺”的方法。滿分是100分,分配到單元測試和課堂表現(xiàn)。其中單元測試40 分,每個單元學(xué)完后,都在我這里面試,采用抽中文簽,做英語對話的形式,當(dāng)面點評,當(dāng)場給分;另外課堂表現(xiàn)60 分,分配到每次課為2 分,學(xué)生每一次主動參與課堂活動得一個星號,賺0.5 分,可以累計。若無人舉手,我會隨意點將,不加星號,不得分。
聽完我的評價方法后,大多數(shù)學(xué)生沉默了,我的心也涼了一截。后了解到他們初中沒有口語課,學(xué)的是啞巴英語,張不開嘴。我提問時,有幾個膽子大的學(xué)生舉手了,“星星之火可以燎原”,我馬上做出積極反應(yīng),不管學(xué)生說得對錯,我都及時加星號,而且隔一段時間就宣布每個學(xué)生的得分情況。有的學(xué)生告訴我看到同學(xué)賺分?jǐn)?shù),心理癢癢的,很羨慕。課堂上,我看出了沒有舉手學(xué)生的渴望,我又重申了如果課堂上不賺分?jǐn)?shù),期末成績可能不及格。課后我?guī)退麄冋页龊π叩脑?并且提出建議,鼓勵他們積極參與。自己不敢舉手,又想賺分?jǐn)?shù),怎么辦?辦法總比問題多。出乎我的意料,他們告訴同桌他們的愿望,同桌就會幫他們把手舉起來,如果我沒有注意到,同桌會直接告訴我。萬事開頭難,幾次發(fā)言后,害羞的學(xué)生膽子越來越大了,只要我給機會,他們就齊刷刷舉手,很自然地說英語,甚至是上臺表演。學(xué)生自信心完全樹立起來了,沒有給他們機會,他們還不高興,無奈的時候,我先給發(fā)言少的學(xué)生機會,爭取讓每個學(xué)生在我這兒得到公平的對待。
由于每一分都是學(xué)生辛苦所得,他們特別在意和珍惜。自發(fā)地監(jiān)督我做好每一次記錄,我一點兒也不敢馬虎?？赐炅朔?jǐn)?shù),學(xué)生特別開心,都會給我一個美滋滋的笑臉,幾個分?jǐn)?shù)差不多的學(xué)生會暗暗較勁。我再也不用擔(dān)心他們不開口說英語了。
學(xué)生不用期末考,減少了期末壓力,分散到每一次單元考,更注重平時的努力。
學(xué)生在賺分?jǐn)?shù)的過程中,體驗到了樂趣。學(xué)生賺的每一分都是透明的,學(xué)生看得見,心理很踏實。每一節(jié)課都能感受到教師的肯定和鼓勵,通過參與活動,檢驗了學(xué)生對知識的掌握程度,教師可以及時查漏補缺。學(xué)生發(fā)現(xiàn)自己的弱點,并很快被糾正,此時的記憶是最深刻的。
學(xué)生是教學(xué)中的主體。在教師的引導(dǎo)下，讓學(xué)生積極參與到教學(xué)中，主動思考并解決問題是教學(xué)目的之所在。任務(wù)型教學(xué)，指的是發(fā)揮學(xué)生的能動性，通過使用所掌握的英語口語能力來完成學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)，從而將學(xué)生的注意力轉(zhuǎn)移到語言的意義而非形式上，在潛移默化中提高學(xué)生的口語交際能力。任務(wù)型教學(xué)能夠最大程度地使每個學(xué)生都參與到完成任務(wù)的活動中來，大大調(diào)動了學(xué)生的參與性，對學(xué)生英語口語的鍛煉具有重要意義。例如，在學(xué)習(xí)介紹自己的家庭成員這一單元時，課前可以要求學(xué)生動手畫一幅全家福。課堂期間，通過小組討論的形式演練如何運用學(xué)到的表達方法來向其他人介紹自己的家庭成員。小組完成任務(wù)后，教師可以將全家福收集起來，放進盒中，由某個學(xué)生上臺抽出一張全家福用課本中的句式來詢問該全家福的一些基本問題，學(xué)生的口語能力便在任務(wù)訓(xùn)練中得到鍛煉。
二、創(chuàng)新教學(xué)方法，開拓學(xué)習(xí)渠道
傳統(tǒng)中學(xué)口語教學(xué)的方式是跟著老師朗讀后再一遍遍自己練習(xí)，雖然這種方法在一定程度上能提高學(xué)生的口語水平，但卻收效甚微，其原因在于重復(fù)練習(xí)的枯燥性和個人練習(xí)缺少正確口語的對照。因此，對教學(xué)方式做出適當(dāng)創(chuàng)新是必要和必然的。全面綜合運用各種教學(xué)手段可以使英語口語學(xué)習(xí)變得生動形象，開拓新的學(xué)習(xí)渠道又能使學(xué)生保持新鮮的學(xué)習(xí)勁頭，這對提升口語水平有很大助力。例如，在傳統(tǒng)模仿原文磁帶的基礎(chǔ)上，可以根據(jù)學(xué)生的口語水平高低來選擇模仿新的內(nèi)容，如脫口秀、演講、新聞等。除此以外，教師可以在空余時間推薦并播放經(jīng)典電影，讓學(xué)生切身體會英語國家的人是如何用英語表達思想和感情的，并注意他們的語音、語調(diào)等，以便學(xué)生對地道的英語有一個大致印象。另外，學(xué)習(xí)模仿電影中的臺詞并嘗試扮演其中的角色也是一項重要手段，使學(xué)生在表演中練習(xí)口語。
三、重視口語基礎(chǔ)，強調(diào)語音語調(diào)
當(dāng)前中學(xué)英語對語音、語調(diào)這類口語基礎(chǔ)并不是特別關(guān)注。而學(xué)好英語口語，就必須擁有正確、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的發(fā)音能力。學(xué)習(xí)英語發(fā)音離不開對音標(biāo)的研究，只有熟悉了解音標(biāo)的各項規(guī)則后，才算邁出口語學(xué)習(xí)的第一步。如果發(fā)音脫離音標(biāo)的指導(dǎo)，那么再流利的口語也達不到自由交流的目的。學(xué)會正確發(fā)音后，如何把握語句情感變化、熟練使用語調(diào)又是一項難題，自然的語調(diào)能為口語增色不少，相反毫無語調(diào)變化、平平淡淡的口語會令聽者感到別扭。故中學(xué)英語口語學(xué)習(xí)中要強調(diào)語音語調(diào)，打下扎實的英語口語基礎(chǔ)。例如，在每學(xué)期開始，對學(xué)生國際音標(biāo)掌握情況做出調(diào)查或測試，了解學(xué)生的口語基礎(chǔ)，并利用一節(jié)課來復(fù)習(xí)強化音標(biāo)，對發(fā)音難度較大、易混淆的音詳細(xì)講解，為本學(xué)期的口語練習(xí)做準(zhǔn)備。課后，可以通過組建互助小組的方式互相矯正口語發(fā)音中的誤區(qū)，互相監(jiān)督發(fā)音練習(xí)。另外，在平時課堂發(fā)言、朗讀中，教師要注意學(xué)生的語調(diào)，要求學(xué)生根據(jù)語義情感變化有節(jié)奏地進行口語交流。
四、鼓勵積極發(fā)言，話題“有話可說”
在課堂上鼓勵發(fā)言，用英語主動表達自己的想法，一直是英語課注重的部分。這個過程一方面可以增強學(xué)生的表達能力和溝通能力，提高學(xué)生使用英語口語的熟練度，另一方面能增強學(xué)生的自信心，并讓教師及時發(fā)現(xiàn)、指出其口語中存在的問題，幫助促進其改正。而鼓勵學(xué)生踴躍發(fā)言的一個前提，就是讓他們“有話可說”，這關(guān)鍵在于選擇的話題是否貼近中學(xué)生的生活，與學(xué)生生活息息相關(guān)的話題才會使他們有發(fā)言的沖動和交流思想的興趣。例如，興趣愛好、明星、電視劇、流行歌曲等一般是中學(xué)生關(guān)注的話題，用話題引起學(xué)生興趣后，可采取小組比賽、個人加分等形式鼓勵學(xué)生積極發(fā)言，使他們在表達中建立說口語的自信，逐漸提高口語能力。
五、結(jié)束語
關(guān)鍵詞：口語訓(xùn)練大學(xué)英語教學(xué)語用功能教學(xué)模式改革文化背景
一、大學(xué)英語教學(xué)的現(xiàn)狀及趨勢：
1987年全國實行大學(xué)英語四、六級考試已有十五年之久了。一直以來這項考試制度備受學(xué)生、教師、教育機構(gòu)甚至是用人單位的關(guān)注，其地位在逐年提高。尤其是近幾年，無論是在實際教學(xué)中還是在現(xiàn)實生活中這項考試都充當(dāng)了指揮棒的角色，社會對英語的重視逐漸通過英語等級考試體現(xiàn)出來了。在這種影響之下，教學(xué)不得不走入一個怪圈，即過分強調(diào)筆試能力和應(yīng)試技巧，而忽略了實際語言能力即語言交際能力這一最基本的方面，這就形成了一個非常奇怪的現(xiàn)象——即使是通過四、六級的學(xué)生，也很難將已掌握的語言知識運用于實際的口語交際中。四、六級成績所反映出來的英語水平在某種程度上并不能反映學(xué)生的整體語言能力的強弱，更不能作為衡量非英語專業(yè)學(xué)生英語水平的唯一尺度。
事實上，全國高校英語教學(xué)的綱領(lǐng)《大學(xué)英語教學(xué)大綱》也明確指出：“大學(xué)英語教學(xué)的目的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的閱讀能力和聽、說、讀、寫、譯能力，使他們能用英語交流信息”?？梢?，語言交際能力是衡量語言掌握程度的重要標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在當(dāng)今日趨國際化的社會里，尤其是在中國成功加入WTO之后，口語交際愈來愈受重視，大學(xué)生口語交際能力的培養(yǎng)與提高已成為大學(xué)外語教學(xué)的一個不容忽視的方面。
二、語用能力和口語訓(xùn)練：
1、語用能力的培養(yǎng)：
Bachman認(rèn)為語言能力包括語言知識和運用語言知識的能力（策略能力或語言認(rèn)知策略）。人們在特定情形下的語言表達有其特定的意義。就語言表達這一語篇而言，其意義不僅僅在于語言形式，而且在于語言及其所在的環(huán)境或者稱之為語境。同樣的語言形式在不同的語境中會含有不同的意義，要進行有效交際，就要求語言的學(xué)習(xí)者不僅僅具備一定的語言知識，而且要具備在不同場合不同語境下，恰當(dāng)?shù)皿w地運用語言的能力。
Canale和Swain（1980）把交際能力概括為：語法能力、社會語言能力、話語能力和策略能力。語法能力相當(dāng)于Chomsky的“語言能力”（LinguisticCompetence），后幾部分被稱為語用能力(PragmaticCompetence);實際上是聽話人對語境的認(rèn)識，及在此基礎(chǔ)上理解他人意思和意圖，準(zhǔn)確表達自己的意思和意圖的能力。筆者曾就語用能力方面，在新生入學(xué)時對自己所帶的班級的新生進行過簡單測試，經(jīng)過至少6年的英語學(xué)習(xí)后，仍有三分之一的學(xué)生接電話時做出“Whoareyou?”或“Areyou?”的提問；約一半的學(xué)生，不能對正式場合及非正式場合進行判斷，不同場合與他人打招呼時不知如何區(qū)分“Hello”，“Hi”，“Howareyou?”，“Howdoyoudo?”等，這都反映了我們長期以來只注重語言本身的教學(xué)，而忽視文化導(dǎo)入，學(xué)生對英語國家的文化、價值觀缺乏了解，導(dǎo)致語言運用出錯的問題。語言運用錯誤事實上是一種“文化錯誤”。“文化錯誤”比語言錯誤更嚴(yán)重，因為它將引起外國人與中國人感情上的不愉快。（胡文仲，1997）。外語教學(xué)中，教師應(yīng)該有意識地灌輸英語國家的文化背景知識，提高學(xué)生對漢英語言文化差異造成的不同語言習(xí)慣和特點的認(rèn)識。
2、教學(xué)模式改革
除了文化背景等知識的灌輸之外，教師還應(yīng)改革教學(xué)模式，創(chuàng)造以學(xué)生為主的教學(xué)模式?？谡Z教學(xué)中一個常用的模式就是“教師提問，學(xué)生回答”。提問不是目的，而是啟發(fā)學(xué)生思維的一種手段，提出問題后應(yīng)給學(xué)生一定時間去思考、準(zhǔn)備和討論。除此之外，還可以采用“學(xué)生提問，學(xué)生回答”的方式。這樣更能激發(fā)學(xué)生的積極性、主動性和創(chuàng)造性，而且這種方法可以與多種教學(xué)相結(jié)合。筆者曾經(jīng)在一次精讀課上采用這種方法，提前布置學(xué)生，分配任務(wù)，一組準(zhǔn)備文章的一個部分，讓學(xué)生自由選擇授課方式，或講解或role-playing。事實證明，學(xué)生的認(rèn)真參與使他們至今對那次課的內(nèi)容記憶猶新。新的教學(xué)方式既有助于學(xué)生內(nèi)化所學(xué)的知識，又能促進學(xué)生運用已有的知識進行交際，將知識的輸入和輸出有效地結(jié)合起來。
3、聽與說有機結(jié)合
口語不是單純地說，而是包含聽和說兩個方面。從心理語言學(xué)的角度看，口語中聽和說是兩個過程，但二者在口語中都是緊密相連，不可分割的。因此，要想提高口語水平，一定得注意聽說結(jié)合，讓學(xué)生有較多的機會開口說話，說的過程中結(jié)合聽，聽的過程中融入說。
美國語言學(xué)家Krashen提出語言習(xí)得中的“沉默期”（silentperiod）說明了聽在說中所起的重要作用。在Krashen的i+1理論中，這種輸入必須是理解的（comprehensible）、大量的（sufficientquantity）。語言的語感只有通過大量的語言輸入才能逐漸得到培養(yǎng)；只有多聽，才能增強語言的敏感性，提高語言的理解性。聽力材料不過是他人的口語的書面材料，通過多聽就能熟悉口語的常規(guī)表達方式，形成較地道的口語表達。
輸入與輸出的結(jié)合要求多聽的同時還須多說。長期以來，學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)了大量語言知識之后，最大的輸出就是做題目，而真正的輸出是指語言運用，它既包含語法詞匯的運用，也包含對這些知識的技能方面的操練及口語練習(xí)。當(dāng)學(xué)生越來越多地生成外語時，他們的口語表達也對其他同學(xué)形成了自然的，可理解的輸入。筆者在聽力授課時常常采用的方法就是讓即興學(xué)生復(fù)述或進行role-playing或討論聽力材料涉及的內(nèi)容，以增強學(xué)生語言運用頻率，這對掌握語言大有裨益。
4、語言知識的記憶
口語的訓(xùn)練及提高離不開記憶，只有在熟記了一定的語法規(guī)則及一些固定用法之后，才能達到順利表達的目的?？谡Z與書面語畢竟還是不太一樣。教學(xué)中應(yīng)將學(xué)生口語中常用的短語和書面語中常用的短語按照同義詞和反義詞等范疇進行歸納總結(jié)。除此之外，還要注意語境的使用及其在委婉程度等方面的差異。比如讓學(xué)生弄清“He’snotalive.”，“Heisdead.”，“Hehaspassedaway.”，“Hehaskickedthebucket.”等的區(qū)別。
口語的訓(xùn)練必須講究科學(xué)的方法，教師可以通過各種渠道，幫助學(xué)生獲取語言信息，并將其運用于口語練習(xí)中。Cook和Ellis認(rèn)為語言信息主要有兩種——“公式化表達”(formulaicexpression)和“熟悉語篇”(intimatediscourse),這些語言信息是學(xué)習(xí)者創(chuàng)造性地運用語言的基礎(chǔ)?！肮交磉_法”指的是一些固定的詞組、句型或是運用于特定場合的語言片段，如會話套語(conversationalroutine)，禮貌公式語(politenessformula)等（高海虹，2000）。許多時候，有些片段并不能通過規(guī)則很好地描述，比如說，通常我們說somebodyelse,someoneelse,something?else，但是不說sometimeelse。這些句子段式就被稱為“語塊”（吳潛龍，2000）。它們是某些句子中的較緊湊的一個單位，其用法也是約定俗成的。以英語為母語的人能夠掌握數(shù)十萬“語塊”，而第二語言的學(xué)生要達到母語般的熟練程度，就必須掌握大量的此類結(jié)構(gòu)，只有熟記了這些結(jié)構(gòu)，才能流利地表達自己。因此，口語的提高必須依靠這些“語塊”的作用。
5、對教師的要求
英語教學(xué)中的口語交流不僅僅發(fā)生在學(xué)習(xí)者之間，還也發(fā)生在學(xué)生與老師之間的，而后者是最有效的教與學(xué)的途徑（張紅玲，2000）。教師自身的口語水平很高，聲音清晰，表達流暢，能準(zhǔn)確傳遞信息，進行交際。這對學(xué)生本身就是極好的示范模本。每一堂課就是一個真實的語言交際場所，這個場所能最大限度地為學(xué)生提供
語言使用的語境，提高他們的興趣和熱情。歷來人與人之間的自然語言是最具親和力的，師生之間的交流在外語教學(xué)這個語言環(huán)境下，本身也是一個語言學(xué)習(xí)的過程，而且通過這種交流，老師能夠及時發(fā)現(xiàn)并指出學(xué)生的表達缺陷和交際技能方面的缺點。同時自身口語流利地道的老師也能對學(xué)生起到潛移默化的作用。學(xué)生通過日常接觸，模仿老師的表達，能夠使自己的語言運用和口語表達得到鞏固和強化。
教師在課堂式語言學(xué)習(xí)過程應(yīng)多組織學(xué)生開展形式、內(nèi)容豐富的語言交際活動，以使學(xué)習(xí)者通過這種互動狀態(tài)形成意義共建及交互修正（interactional?modification），大大增進語言習(xí)得（龐繼賢，吳薇薇，2000）。教師授課過程中如能通過適當(dāng)引用國內(nèi)外的最新材料作為口語交際材料，既能激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)語言的興趣，又能促進學(xué)生了解不同的文化背景。興趣是最好的老師，通過端正學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)動機，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生正確的學(xué)習(xí)態(tài)度和學(xué)習(xí)策略，不但對其在校期間的學(xué)習(xí)有益，而且會使其受益終身。
在大學(xué)英語教學(xué)中注重口語訓(xùn)練的開展，除了能給學(xué)生提供較多的語言使用環(huán)境，有利于鞏固所學(xué)之外，還能提高他們的交際能力，從而提高其綜合素質(zhì)?？谡Z訓(xùn)練環(huán)境的提供，能緩解學(xué)生的焦慮感，促進學(xué)生對學(xué)習(xí)語言的興趣的培養(yǎng)，發(fā)揮其積極主動性。總的來說非英語專業(yè)的學(xué)生口語水平普遍不高，老師對全班的授課往往使很多學(xué)生感到緊張，有壓力，長久下來，就會形成一種負(fù)擔(dān)，影響學(xué)習(xí)進度。寬松、自然的口語交流能使他們放松，也能增加他們的興趣，而且，經(jīng)常性的口語交流能暴露出學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)上的一些問題，有利于老師對癥下藥。
除了營造課堂小環(huán)境（畢竟時間短，曇花一現(xiàn)），教師還應(yīng)在課外為學(xué)生營造良好的英語氛圍，如多媒體教學(xué)、英語角、英語廣播等。當(dāng)學(xué)生的語言能有效地運用于實際時，心理上的滿足必將轉(zhuǎn)化為巨大的學(xué)習(xí)動力，促使他們積極投入進一步的學(xué)習(xí)之中。
1.英語口語教學(xué)的本質(zhì)。在學(xué)習(xí)英語口語教學(xué)的本質(zhì)前，我們應(yīng)該知道最直接的英語口語教學(xué)的方式就是為了幫助學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)如何與外國人交流。語言能力和交際能力二者是不可分的。由于交際法在英語教學(xué)中的影響，交際法對于學(xué)生來講遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)好于老師在課堂上的更多講解。對于口語教學(xué)有三個主要的方面，學(xué)習(xí)者需要知道的，和老師要找到如何幫助影響學(xué)生的方法：口語交流是在實時條件限制下進行的?？谡Z從根本上是一個互動的任務(wù)?？谡Z比書面形式更能從根本上聯(lián)系到說話的人。
2.大學(xué)口語教學(xué)的意義。眾所周知，學(xué)習(xí)英語有四項基本的技巧聽、說、讀、寫。當(dāng)我們學(xué)習(xí)一門語言的時候，我們的目標(biāo)就是為了用語言解釋我們的思想和與人們交流。換言之，口語能力對于每個英語學(xué)習(xí)者都是非常重要的，與此同時，說更能提升其他三個技能。因此，如何教好口語是十分必要的。但是我們目前的口語教學(xué)現(xiàn)狀不容樂觀，讓我們來分析下具體的原因。
3.學(xué)生口語差的原因。許多老師不懂得在口語教學(xué)中自己應(yīng)該充當(dāng)?shù)慕巧?，也不懂得如何提供一個自然的口語環(huán)境。一些教師只把重點放在了精準(zhǔn)度和流利程度上，這導(dǎo)致了學(xué)生更加擔(dān)心自己出現(xiàn)問題。大多數(shù)的中國學(xué)生都比較保守。她們表現(xiàn)自己時大多數(shù)都比較緊張和害羞，而且教學(xué)環(huán)境也比較緊張，所以導(dǎo)致學(xué)生不愿意參與到口語交流當(dāng)中。
二、英語口語課堂管理
1.課堂管理的定義。對于老師和學(xué)生來說課堂管理是一項技能。能夠組織學(xué)生的天賦在一個更好的學(xué)習(xí)環(huán)境中進行學(xué)習(xí)。
2.影響英語口語課堂教學(xué)的主要因素。課堂管理由四個主要部分組成：老師，學(xué)生，教學(xué)環(huán)境、教材和教具。我們來討論下這四個方面是如何影響課堂管理的。
(1)老師的角色
1)老師要有一個適當(dāng)?shù)目谡Z教學(xué)方法。老師要知道英語口語教學(xué)是一種實踐而不是教學(xué)的方法。
2)在目前的英語口語課中大部分學(xué)生已經(jīng)適應(yīng)了傳統(tǒng)的被動的角色來學(xué)習(xí)英語。老師有必要把它們變成主動的參與者，讓她們在課堂上參與到行動中來。
3)在英語口語課堂中教師的角色是多變的。作為一名老師應(yīng)該讓學(xué)生知道她們將做什么應(yīng)該做什么，什么才是自己的目標(biāo)活動。老師的角色是一個組織者，組織不同的課堂活動，讓同學(xué)們積極的參與到活動中來。老師也是一個參與者，參與到同學(xué)們的活動中，讓他們更加自然的展現(xiàn)最真實的自己。
(2)學(xué)生的角色
1)學(xué)生應(yīng)積極的參加到課堂活動中并建立起自信。另一方面，她們應(yīng)該清楚學(xué)習(xí)英語的最終目的不是為了得到一個高分，而是要把英語當(dāng)作一個交流的工具。
2)學(xué)生應(yīng)該時刻記住她們才是課堂的中心。學(xué)生不僅僅是聽老師說和記筆記，而應(yīng)該積極的參與到課堂活動中，成為演講，小組活動的主要角色。
(3)課堂環(huán)境
如果老師坐在同學(xué)的旁邊，學(xué)生就會把老師當(dāng)作其中的一員。老師就會更容易的參與到學(xué)生的活動中，就像她們的朋友一樣能給予她們幫助。毫無疑問學(xué)生的活動積極性就會大大提升。這是師生間很好的交流方式之一。這也是老師更容易管理學(xué)生的好方法。
(4)教材和教具
1)我們來了解一下口語教材。我們有許多有關(guān)于閱讀、寫作、聽力的書籍，但是口語書卻很少。教師必須通過互聯(lián)網(wǎng)去下載有關(guān)口語方面的教材。所以在教材的選擇上有了很大的困難。合適的教材可以鼓勵學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)動機，增加他們的自信，因此提高他們的口語水平。這樣學(xué)生才會放松的融入到口語學(xué)習(xí)中。
2)教具能夠使口語課堂更加成功。如今的多媒體教學(xué)，例如電視、錄像機、電腦。作為老師，不僅要知道如何使用教具，更要懂得教學(xué)方法。
三、總結(jié)
1.局限性。前面我所說的一些教學(xué)方法并不適合每一個學(xué)生，因為每個學(xué)生存在個體的差異性。所以當(dāng)你學(xué)習(xí)的時候一定要找到適合自己的學(xué)習(xí)方式。
2.意義。學(xué)習(xí)英語主要有四個技能聽、說、讀、寫。我們學(xué)習(xí)一門語言時，我們的目的是用他來與他人溝通。換句話說，英語口語對于每一個學(xué)習(xí)英語的人來說都是十分重要的。同時，口語好也能提高其他三個方面的能力。因此，教好口語是很必要的。
回顧自己的教學(xué)實踐，又認(rèn)真觀摩了多節(jié)新教材的研討課，筆者發(fā)現(xiàn)當(dāng)前口語課教學(xué)中存在以下兩個主要問題：
問題一：雖然使用了新教材，但仍承襲舊教材的教學(xué)方法。教師在口語課上還是以自己表述為主導(dǎo)，學(xué)生在課堂中只是被動的跟著教師走，按照任務(wù)完成學(xué)習(xí)。
問題二：學(xué)生在課堂中只是“熱熱鬧鬧”的完成老師提出的“任務(wù)話題”，但在其談?wù)摰倪^程中漫無邊際，無法和教材內(nèi)容相融合，達到真正運用語言的能力。
在新課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)所提倡的教學(xué)理念中，教師如何有效的設(shè)計“口語課”并加強學(xué)生其他語言能力的培養(yǎng)？如何在課堂中既點燃學(xué)生的“興奮點”又能兼顧教學(xué)過程中的聽說策略呢？
創(chuàng)設(shè)語言環(huán)境，營造良好的交際氛圍。新的課程理念提倡從用的角度出發(fā)進行英語口語學(xué)習(xí)。要使學(xué)生能根據(jù)交際的話題、場合、人際關(guān)系等相關(guān)因素得體地運用語言。教材中，每節(jié)課都有生活背景，教師可以引導(dǎo)學(xué)生進行對話、演講、課本劇表演、辯論等，通過pairwork和roleplay展示出來。另一方面，教師還可以根據(jù)課文的特點來設(shè)計一些不同的口語課活動形式。如Dialogue、Competition、Talking、Debate、Discussion等環(huán)節(jié)，提高學(xué)生英語運用能力，充分調(diào)動他們學(xué)習(xí)英語的熱情，激發(fā)學(xué)生的“興奮點”。
善于采用教學(xué)策略，激活學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)潛能。SEFC教材不同的項目設(shè)置和不同的項目要求教師采用不同的教學(xué)策略，對于英語口語教學(xué)，多元的教學(xué)策略不僅可以激發(fā)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)興趣和學(xué)習(xí)潛能，而且有利于促進學(xué)生的心智發(fā)展。
第一，教師可設(shè)計具體的日?？谡Z會話情景，訓(xùn)練學(xué)生日?？谡Z會話能力。
學(xué)生要熟練掌握日常口語會話，就必須掌握范圍廣闊的、基本得當(dāng)?shù)娜粘Ｓ谜Z，以服務(wù)于交際目的。如怎樣表示想與陌生人交談；怎樣表示喜愛與厭惡，贊同與異議；怎樣問路與指路；怎樣發(fā)出與接受邀請；怎樣處理電話；怎樣抱怨與安慰別人；如何購物、求醫(yī)、求學(xué)，節(jié)假日或旅游時的交際范圍有哪些等等。這些問題看似簡單，但由于中西文化及語言的差異，好多學(xué)生不知如何應(yīng)付這些問題。在基礎(chǔ)會話單元教學(xué)過程，筆者針對這一情況首先通過中西方語言差異比較，將學(xué)生感到困難的關(guān)鍵句列在黑板上，然后將學(xué)生分組，自己設(shè)計情景，組織會話，并進行反復(fù)實踐，使學(xué)生對自己使用不當(dāng)?shù)暮颓返皿w的語言進行加工并逐步加深印象。
第二，通過對日常生活題材討論，逐步提高學(xué)生語言的組織能力。
SEFC教材提供了涉及鄰里關(guān)系、購物、運動與健康、家庭生活、看病、抽煙與疾病、教育與發(fā)展等等日常生活話題。題材的討論是訓(xùn)練學(xué)生口語能力一個重要階段，在這個階段中，通過組織多種形式課堂和課外的討論活動，適時引導(dǎo)學(xué)生廣泛地對日常生活中的各類題材相互間進行會話，既增強了學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)興趣、逐步提高了學(xué)生對語言的駕馭能力，又活躍學(xué)生的思維、擴大了知識面。同時，教師還可以自己創(chuàng)設(shè)情境話題，讓學(xué)生組織討論。例如：“Talkabouttheholiday”
(1)Telltheclassaboutyourholiday.Didyougohomeortravel?Whatdidyoudowithyourfamilyeachdayorwheredidyoudo/whodidyousee/visit?
(2)DiscussthecustomsoftheSpringFestival.WhatdopeopledotopreparefortheNewYear/SpringFestival?Aretheresomeinterestingactivitiesthatyoudoinyourfamilyorhometowntocelebrate?
(3)Whatisthebestplaceyouhaveevertraveledto?Whydidyoulikethatplaceandwhatmadeitspecial?
在討論這樣的題材時，可以每組負(fù)責(zé)討論一個問題，然后面向全班闡述自己的觀點；有時是各小組將各自討論的結(jié)果作對比，分析總結(jié)異同，學(xué)生即興發(fā)言，最后教師進行總結(jié)。在討論某一問題時，要求每個發(fā)言者不能只顧自說自己的，而要針對前一個人的發(fā)言做出評論，提出自己的觀點，闡述自己的看法。
第三，通過對熱點話題辯論，提高學(xué)生口語的思辨能力。
提高學(xué)生口語的思辨能力是口語教學(xué)的最高階段，這一階段的主要目的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生作長篇論述的能力。目前，大多數(shù)中國學(xué)生需要口語輸出時，講的多是零星片語，而形不成有序的邏輯主體，其主要原因是缺乏聯(lián)想與想象這方面的訓(xùn)練，不知道應(yīng)從多角度多層面進行剖析。針對這一現(xiàn)象，筆者在教學(xué)中通過循序漸進的形式積極引導(dǎo)學(xué)生對每一個會話題材進行橫向和縱向的分析。如在“Thesilverscreen”一課時，組織學(xué)生討論：“copyright”
教師給學(xué)生進行口語輔導(dǎo)過程中，會發(fā)現(xiàn)兩個比較明顯的問題。學(xué)生對文章進行讀和背時，有很多錯誤出現(xiàn)。例如：學(xué)生的語音語調(diào)比較奇怪、單詞發(fā)音不準(zhǔn)，學(xué)生不會連讀和斷句等等。學(xué)生比較緊張，導(dǎo)致在讀的過程中語速比較快，學(xué)生聲音比較小，有顫音出現(xiàn)，學(xué)生讀文章不夠連貫，還出現(xiàn)語法錯誤、人稱混亂等等問題。學(xué)生在上機考試時，難免會出現(xiàn)這些問題。教師在教學(xué)中，要幫助學(xué)生避免有口誤錯誤出現(xiàn)。
二、學(xué)生口語輔導(dǎo)策略
（一）要熟悉評分、明確重點知識
在口語考試過程中，電腦一般會綜合四個方面因素給學(xué)生口語進行打分，這四個因素分別是準(zhǔn)確性、完整性、韻律性以及流利性。在這四個因素中，完整性所占的比例是70%，準(zhǔn)確率是20%，剩下的是5%。進行單詞評估時，如果學(xué)生在單詞重音、輔音以及元音都準(zhǔn)確無誤時，可以拿到比較高的分?jǐn)?shù)?？谡Z不太流利，主要是學(xué)生在詞匯、短語停頓時，只注意到句子中的實詞和虛詞，沒有注意到首詞。因此，不能準(zhǔn)確地進行停頓。一般而言，停頓主要有連詞后停頓、代詞停頓以及副詞停頓等等。因此教師要在準(zhǔn)確性、完整性以及流利性上下工夫。
（二）全面普查，分層要求
在學(xué)習(xí)初期，教師要對學(xué)生的口語部分進行全面檢查。在檢查過程中，教師會有所發(fā)現(xiàn)，一些英語基礎(chǔ)比較好的學(xué)生，他們自我感覺比較良好。在朗讀短文以及話題時，一般都是課堂中臨時進行，很多學(xué)生都缺乏流利性以及準(zhǔn)確性，韻律性就很難達到了。這個時候，學(xué)生要使用自己已學(xué)的知識進行自我監(jiān)控。想要實現(xiàn)監(jiān)控應(yīng)該滿足兩個前提：一、學(xué)生要重視語言的準(zhǔn)確性，有避免語言錯誤出現(xiàn)的強烈欲望。二、學(xué)生要了解相關(guān)的語言規(guī)則。教師在進行教學(xué)過程中，就需要給一些自我感覺良好的學(xué)生施加一定的壓力，教師明確提出教學(xué)要求。借助要求要激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)積極性。學(xué)生通過自我的監(jiān)控，糾正自己的錯誤。這樣教師才會有更多時間去關(guān)注口語問題比較嚴(yán)重的學(xué)生，從而推動班級教學(xué)水平提高。
（三）創(chuàng)設(shè)情境，加強訓(xùn)練
從口語考試題型中看出，很多都是情景問答類型的。教師對學(xué)生教學(xué)過程中，要做到教學(xué)針對性，這才可以彌補應(yīng)試不足問題出現(xiàn)。深入研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，學(xué)生缺乏的不是材料的準(zhǔn)備，而是在面對情境時，不能準(zhǔn)確地做出回答。學(xué)生在進行回答時，不論是選擇了完整回答還是簡略回答，一般都會使用到語塊。語塊之所以會被大量使用，最主要的原因是基于它的省力原則。使用語塊可以直接影響學(xué)習(xí)者語言的流暢性，如果只是簡單的依靠語法規(guī)則是遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠的，這還注重對語塊的學(xué)習(xí)和使用。在情境問題中，主要考察的是學(xué)生在語言交際過程中語言的使用靈活性。學(xué)生平時學(xué)習(xí)到的語塊可以簡單的被使用，而且還能夠保障流暢性和準(zhǔn)確性。語塊的使用不僅是使用于簡略的回答，完整回答也是需要的。舉個例子，進行動作陳述時，在一個星期天的晚上，李華看了場電影，名字是《音樂之聲》。他覺得這部電影很好看。第一，When andwhere did LiHua see the film The Sound of Music第二，What did he think of it？學(xué)生在進行問題回答時，需要明確這兩個過去式的問題使用的句式，第一問題可以回答為He saw it at the Red StarCinema last Sunday，對第二個問題回答時，只能回答“He thought itwas wonderfu1不能簡短的回答成wonderfu1。
（四）當(dāng)堂抽查，現(xiàn)場指導(dǎo)
進入了總復(fù)習(xí)階段，一般學(xué)習(xí)時間都比較緊張，學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)也比較繁重。但是教師不能忽略了當(dāng)堂抽查，現(xiàn)場指導(dǎo)教學(xué)環(huán)節(jié)。上課時，教師可以隨機抽查三位學(xué)生，要求學(xué)生朗讀某一個短文，學(xué)生的語音語調(diào)要正確，在讀的過程中要注意連讀、停頓、注意爆破音等等。節(jié)奏要緊湊、語速要自然流利。最好全班要進行情境問題訓(xùn)練，要求全班同學(xué)在認(rèn)真的聽，教師隨機叫一位學(xué)生進行回答，然后教師點評學(xué)生的回答速度，看學(xué)生表達準(zhǔn)確性。學(xué)生可以針對話題進行簡述。進行朗讀短文教學(xué)時，學(xué)生對文章背誦連貫性、完整性以及流利性都需要進行觀察把握，從細(xì)節(jié)中查看變化。
三、使用圖式理論方法推動閱讀水平提高
閱讀前要求學(xué)生要有充分的準(zhǔn)備，要能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)從上到下的內(nèi)容圖式激活。所謂激活就是對學(xué)生鬧鐘所學(xué)知識及結(jié)構(gòu)的刺激。在實際閱讀之前可以鼓勵學(xué)生根據(jù)課本中的插圖或者關(guān)鍵詞來進行預(yù)測。學(xué)生應(yīng)該高度重視這些關(guān)鍵詞，要仔細(xì)研讀掌握這些關(guān)鍵詞并結(jié)合這些關(guān)鍵詞來探討文章的主題。在閱讀過程中教師要引導(dǎo)學(xué)生對文章內(nèi)容要進行深入理解，通過深化理解來提升學(xué)生的閱讀技能。在實際教學(xué)過程中必須要要求學(xué)生建立起相應(yīng)的語篇圖式。通過建立圖式能夠幫助學(xué)生更加準(zhǔn)確迅速地掌握教材脈絡(luò)，同時還能夠增強學(xué)生的記憶力、推理能力以及理解能力。此外在閱讀過程中還應(yīng)該把新知識融入到學(xué)生原有的圖式結(jié)構(gòu)中，最終產(chǎn)生新的圖式。在閱讀完成之后教師應(yīng)該向?qū)W生提供更加寬松的討論范圍，要允許學(xué)生進行爭論，通過討論來調(diào)動學(xué)生的積極性。在實際討論過程中要逐步擴充和應(yīng)用新的圖式知識。為了讓學(xué)生更加深刻地掌握圖式知識，在閱讀完成后還可以進行圖式復(fù)述以及圖式協(xié)作。
結(jié)束語
摘 要
近年來，隨著我國改革開放的發(fā)展和我國與國際間的經(jīng)濟、科技、文化交流日益頻繁，人們越來越重視外國文化問題。同時，我們也逐漸認(rèn)識到了了解外國文化在對外交往中的重要性。在教育領(lǐng)域中，外語教學(xué)也漸漸重視對學(xué)生交際能力的培養(yǎng)。然而，對許多老師而言，文化教學(xué)還是一個較新的概念，從跨文化角度對英語教學(xué)進行研究探討在目前還是個新領(lǐng)域。我們必須認(rèn)識到交際能力的培養(yǎng)是外語教學(xué)的主要目標(biāo)，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生跨文化交際的技能是中學(xué)外語教學(xué)要達到的一個目標(biāo)。文化教學(xué)在中學(xué)英語教學(xué)中的重要性不可忽視，英語學(xué)習(xí)者不了解英語國家的文化，就無法獲得交際能力。因此在中學(xué)英語口語教學(xué)中應(yīng)該目標(biāo)明確地，循序漸進地，方法得當(dāng)?shù)貙?dǎo)入文化教學(xué)，使英語學(xué)習(xí)者在學(xué)習(xí)語言和知識的同時受到文化的熏陶，在跨文化交際中游刃有余。
關(guān)鍵詞： 跨文化交際；文化教學(xué)；中學(xué)英語口語教學(xué)
ABSTRACT
Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.
Keywords：Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. the concept of intercultural communication 3
2.1 Literature review 3
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4
3.A survey based on classroom observations 7
3.1 The analysis of interviews 7
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12
4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19
5. Conclusion 25
Acknowledgements 26
References 27
AppendixⅠ 28
1． Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.
So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. The concept of intercultural communication
2.1 Literature review
More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.
In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.
In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.
Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.
Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.
Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication
“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.
Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.
2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication
Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]
If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…
Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.
2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school
The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.
Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.
3. A survey based on classroom observations
Survey date: 25/02/2009
Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.
Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. 30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.
The objective of this survey is to investigate:
1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning
2) Current situation of students’ information input.
3.1 The analysis of interviews
Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:
(1) Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;
(2) Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.
(3) Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.
In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).
Table1. Results of the Interview
Positive attitudes Percentage
Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33％ (25/30)
Accumulation of culture 33.33％ (10/30)
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ ( 5/30)
These students’ responses reveal the following information:
Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.
According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire
The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:
1. Strongly Agree (SA) 2. Agree (A) 3. Disagree (D) 4. Strongly Disagree (SD)
According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning 60.29％ 31.65％ 2.04％ 6.02％
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary 17.35％ 69.39％ 13.26％ 0.00％
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning 44.90％ 53.06％ 2.04％ 0.00％
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance 50.00％ 48.98％ 1.02％ 0.00％
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on 39.80％ 60.20％ 0.00％ 0.00％
Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.
3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire
With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to
have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire
Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview
(open-ended) Questionnaire
(close-ended)
Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88％ 91.94％
Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33％ 98.98％
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ 97.96％
From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)
This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.
1) Integrative motivation
Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.
.2) Instrumental Motivation
In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.
Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29％ 61.22％ 21.43％ 3.06％
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43％ 66.33％ 11.22％ 1.02％
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills 2.04％ 7.14％ 71.43％ 19.39％
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51％ 63.27％ 9.18％ 2.04％
As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.
In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum
It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.
Table5. Courses Information
Course Duration Teacherˊs background
Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese
Communication between cultures the 7th term New Zealander
American literature the 7th term Chinese
An Outline Introduction to Britain and America the 7th term Canadian
Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.
From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.
Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence
Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].
Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:
----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)
----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures
----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)
----Be aware of how they see the target culture
4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.
4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning，not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners
4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness
Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.
Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.
Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.
4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences
There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.
4.2.1.3 The development of empathy
In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.
To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:
(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into
the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.
(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle
school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.
(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they
can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers
Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:
(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.
(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.
(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.
(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.
(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.
(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.
(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.
Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.
For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities， and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.
Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.
As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.
Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.
4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.
(1) Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
(2) Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
(3) Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
(4) Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.
(5) Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.
(6) Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.
5. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.
Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.
And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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AppendixⅠ
*Questionnaire:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on
6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.
誠 信 承 諾
我謹(jǐn)在此承諾：本人所寫的畢業(yè)論文《論中學(xué)英語口語教學(xué)中跨文化交際能力的培養(yǎng)》均系本人獨立完成，沒有抄襲行為，凡涉及其他作者的觀點和材料，均作了注釋，若有不實，后果由本人承擔(dān)。
承諾人（簽名）：
論文摘要：大中專英語教學(xué)改革，提高英語口語教學(xué)水平，應(yīng)采取以下幾種有效方法:注重課堂口語教學(xué);開設(shè)第二課堂搞好份語教學(xué);訓(xùn)練大中專學(xué)生提高口語技巧。
長期以來，我國大中專學(xué)生英語交際能力差，尤其是口語能力更差的問題比較突出，啞吧英語現(xiàn)象帶有普遍性，提高口語教學(xué)水平，解決啞吧英語變?yōu)榱骼⒄Z問題已經(jīng)在我們這些從事大中專公共英語課教師面前重要而緊迫的任務(wù)，那么我們應(yīng)該如何提高大中專學(xué)生英語口語教學(xué)質(zhì)量呢，下面就此問題談幾點看法。
口語教改的重要作用教學(xué)大綱要求與啞吧英語現(xiàn)實的矛盾。教學(xué)大綱要求大中專學(xué)生能就教學(xué)內(nèi)容和一般聽力教材進行問答和討論，能就一般的社會生活話題進行簡單的交談，討論和發(fā)言，表達思想清楚，語音，語調(diào)基本正確。然而目前大中專學(xué)生很難達到這一要求，口語水平極低，學(xué)7年左右英語，用英語表達很差，呈現(xiàn)啞吧英語的局面，能看，能讀，不能說。一個班級僅有一至二人能用英語簡單表達，絕大多數(shù)不能表達。導(dǎo)致這種局面一是目前英語口語課程開設(shè)的課時少，有的學(xué)?；静婚_，但更主要原因是過時陳舊的英語教學(xué)方法，重閱讀，語法，輕實際表達，至于口語訓(xùn)練幾乎沒有，這種教學(xué)方法必須改革，采取新的教學(xué)方法，增加口語課是迅速提高英語教學(xué)水平達到大綱要求的有效途徑。
社會對英語口語人才大量需要與英語口語教學(xué)水平低，不能滿足市場需求的矛盾。社會大量需要英語口語人材。求職要求口語人才。三資企業(yè)，國內(nèi)企業(yè)，政府和社會公共事業(yè)單位隨深化改革和擴大開放對英語口語人才需求呈上升趨勢。大中專畢業(yè)生畢業(yè)雙向選擇，在求職中英語口語水平?jīng)Q定求職人員工作位置高低，收人水平的高低，決定畢業(yè)生的前途命運。工作中需要口語，在外商談判，參加國際學(xué)術(shù)活動需要口語。國際經(jīng)貿(mào)文化交往越來越需要口語人才，尤其中國即將加人WTO，大量需要外向型英語口語人才。繼續(xù)求學(xué)的需要。大中專畢業(yè)生繼續(xù)求學(xué)拿學(xué)士，碩士，博士學(xué)位必須具備英語口頭表達能力，尤其是出國留學(xué)，進修更需要英語口頭表達能力。文化生活的需要。英語口語水平的提高今后對大中專學(xué)生參加英語沙龍，欣賞英美電影，小說，二網(wǎng)，欣賞體育比賽提高生活質(zhì)量是重要的條件。然而目前由于過時的教學(xué)方法，英語口語教學(xué)極端落后，培訓(xùn)英語口語人才質(zhì)量不高，數(shù)量少，不能滿足社會大量需要。
關(guān)鍵詞：英語；口語教學(xué)；意義
語是利用語言表達思想，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生進行口頭交際的能。為了達到這一目標(biāo)，采取什么樣的教學(xué)方法和手段就顯得非常重要。而傳統(tǒng)的語言教學(xué)以“教”為主，教師講解占去了課堂的主要時間，學(xué)生在教學(xué)過程中消極被動地接受語言知識。實際上，外語學(xué)習(xí)的首要任務(wù)是“學(xué)”而不是“教”。在英語口語教學(xué)中，教師應(yīng)兼顧這兩方面，善于發(fā)掘，勇于創(chuàng)新，采取形式多樣的教學(xué)手段，激發(fā)學(xué)生英語學(xué)習(xí)的興趣。我們不能把自己看作是不斷向?qū)W生傳遞信息的源泉，而應(yīng)是組織學(xué)生大量參與使用語言的學(xué)習(xí)活動的組織者和參與者，從而為學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)使用語言創(chuàng)造機會，提供指導(dǎo)，使學(xué)生通過自己的語言實踐來掌握這些知識和能力，并為取得富有成效的結(jié)果提供監(jiān)督，幫助學(xué)生負(fù)責(zé)自己的學(xué)習(xí)，并在學(xué)習(xí)的過程中逐漸掌握最適合自己情況的學(xué)習(xí)方法。
作為當(dāng)下國際通行的一種校際英語辯論模式——議會制英語辯論(Parliamentary English Debate)——是一項充滿思辨樂趣的跨文化說服活動。作為一種文化現(xiàn)象，議會制英語辯論不等于英美等國的議會辯論，它只是借用了英美議會辯論的發(fā)言形式．為全世界的英語學(xué)習(xí)者提供了一個共同交流思想的平臺。
最早的議會制英語辯論出現(xiàn)在19世紀(jì)英國牛津大學(xué)、劍橋大學(xué)的學(xué)生辯論協(xié)會中，其主要模仿借鑒了英國下議院的辯論模式。隨著英語交流的國際化．議會制英語辯論作為一種文化現(xiàn)象得以迅速推廣。今天．議會制英語辯論已發(fā)展成為世界范圍內(nèi)大學(xué)校際英語辯論賽的主要形式。其賽制與規(guī)則也因地域文化的差異而發(fā)生些許變化。議會制英語辯論在發(fā)展初期主要在英美等國大學(xué)的校際比賽中進行．它在亞洲國家的起步較晚，具有歷史意義的第一屆全亞大專英語辯論賽1994年才在新加坡南洋理工大學(xué)成功舉行。到2004年5月．隨著第25屆世界大專英語辯論賽在馬來西亞的成功舉行，議會制英語辯論才真正成為一項在亞、非、美、澳、歐廣為普及的國際賽事。
關(guān)于英語口語教學(xué)，國內(nèi)有不少教學(xué)論文都不同程度地談及英語論辯教學(xué)。然而，其中不少關(guān)于英語論辯的論文卻多以中文辯論為模本進行英語翻版或以個人臆想進行主觀創(chuàng)造，缺乏一定的規(guī)范性與國際視野。
我們的英語口語教學(xué)應(yīng)該要轉(zhuǎn)換一下思路了．傳統(tǒng)視野中的英語口語教學(xué)一直將英語語音、語調(diào)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)奉為口語優(yōu)秀的首要前提。這一要求一方面使那些有地方口音的英語愛好者對口語學(xué)習(xí)望而卻步；另一方面也使一些人過于刻意地模仿洋腔洋調(diào)，卻忽視了說話的內(nèi)容，往往言之無物。缺乏敏銳深刻的思辨。新時代與新形勢要求我們的口語教學(xué)能真正定位于有跨文化說服能力的人才培養(yǎng)上，而這種人才培養(yǎng)顯然離不開英語論辯教學(xué)。因此，在當(dāng)前國內(nèi)英語論辯教學(xué)尚不規(guī)范的情況下，將議會制英語辯論引入英語口語課堂無疑是非常必要的。
議會制英語辯論的辯題(Motion)一般以一項議案的形式出現(xiàn)，因此在每個辯題中都會有“This house”的固定開頭。
這里的“This house”不一定就指某國家的政府或議會。議會制英語辯論的辯題一般分為封閉式、半封閉式和開放式三種。其中，半封閉式與開放式辯題對培養(yǎng)辯手的創(chuàng)新思維能力頗有益處。 轉(zhuǎn)貼于
議會制英語辯論主張即興演講與即興論爭的完美結(jié)合。對議會制英語辯論賽而言．主辦方一般只提前15—20分鐘公布賽題．而且在每輪循環(huán)賽中使用不同的辯題。此外，議會制英語辯論一般只賦予正方充分的定義權(quán)與議題轉(zhuǎn)化權(quán)，反方一般只享有反駁權(quán)。這樣一來．正、反雙方就無法拿各自的定義做擋箭牌，漫無邊際地做各自已經(jīng)準(zhǔn)備好的演說秀；辯論中的正、反雙方也就必然要就議題發(fā)生直接的正面沖突了。
議會制英語辯論倡導(dǎo)既競爭又合作的比賽精神。所謂相互競爭指的是雙方辯手間唇槍舌劍的局面．所謂相互合作指的是議會制英語辯論主張雙方在辯題定義為具體議題方面應(yīng)保持合作，盡量在同一個議題下展開辯論。而不是像傳統(tǒng)辯論那樣，在對辯題的定義上各執(zhí)一詞，將辯論變?yōu)閮啥位ゲ幌喔傻难葜v。換言之，議會制英語辯論的正方會盡量給反方一個合理可辯的議題，而不會在一些字詞上做文字游戲，使反方覺得正方定義的議題無言以對。在議會制英語辯論中，合格的辯手都會將辯論視為一種非常有趣的思維體操，而不是那種要置人于死地的殘酷對決。議會制英語辯論的這種不成文的合作精神是一種高尚的人文境界，對辯手的身心發(fā)展具有十分積極的作用。在這種合作精神關(guān)照下的雙方，不再是充滿敵意的對手，而是真正意義上的“辯友”。
辯論賽結(jié)束后，教師積極開發(fā)學(xué)生的思維，并和學(xué)生共同總結(jié)出辯論活動在英語口語教學(xué)中的如下創(chuàng)新：
1. 能將課堂預(yù)設(shè)和生成有機結(jié)合；
2. 課堂辯論賽激發(fā)出創(chuàng)造的火花，使課堂變得更生動；
3. 能將教師主導(dǎo)與學(xué)生自主有機結(jié)合；
4. 能將競爭和合作有機結(jié)合；
5. 構(gòu)建學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)團隊，比合作學(xué)習(xí)更走遠(yuǎn)了一步；
6. 能改變膚淺的課堂討論，提高學(xué)生的邏輯思辨能力、表達能力以及民主意識。
綜上所述，筆者以為將英語辯論引入英語口語課堂是一項非常有意義的教改舉措。英語辯論是一種將本土思維與外國語言結(jié)合的完美實踐。它能幫助我們的學(xué)生在跨文化的論辯場合不僅說得出口，而且說得有內(nèi)容、有邏輯，有道理。也只有這樣，我們才有望真正解決“啞巴英語”與“啞巴思維”的同題。英語辯論能夠有效地促進學(xué)生英語口語發(fā)展，教師可將英語辯論適度引入課堂，作為豐富課堂組織活動的手段之一，促進教師與學(xué)生、學(xué)生與學(xué)生的多邊互動，彌補課堂交際活動的缺陷。充分發(fā)揮課堂辯論的優(yōu)勢，增強了口語課的效果，使口語教學(xué)有新的突破，將人文素質(zhì)教育逐步滲透至英語教學(xué)的課堂。
參考文獻
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