時間：2023-03-01 16:23:41
導(dǎo)語：在美食文化論文的撰寫旅程中，學(xué)習(xí)并吸收他人佳作的精髓是一條寶貴的路徑，好期刊匯集了九篇優(yōu)秀范文，愿這些內(nèi)容能夠啟發(fā)您的創(chuàng)作靈感，引領(lǐng)您探索更多的創(chuàng)作可能。
一些化學(xué)實驗需要較長的時間才能完成，而由于受到課時的限制，教師難以將化學(xué)實驗搬進課堂，為學(xué)生演練整個實驗過程。然而，如果使用多媒體手段，這個難題就迎刃而解。比如針對“鐵生銹”這個實驗，做完整個實驗流程一般需要10天左右的時間，教師可以利用電視錄像記錄整個實驗過程，然后再加以一定的技術(shù)處理，將整個實驗過程中有明顯現(xiàn)象變化的部分剪輯出來，再在課堂上播放給學(xué)生看，就可以讓學(xué)生在短時間內(nèi)知曉鐵生銹的過程，不僅節(jié)約了課堂時間，還可以讓學(xué)生觀察到明顯的實驗現(xiàn)象，增強認知感。另外，還有一部分化學(xué)實驗是在瞬間完成的，整個過程很難分步觀察，教師可以利用多媒體虛擬實驗，采用“重放”“定格”和“慢放”的技術(shù)功能幫助學(xué)生觀察。比如可以設(shè)計Flas模擬實驗室制取二氧化碳氣體的過程，幫助學(xué)生清晰觀察整個實驗反應(yīng)過程。
二、扼殺危險因子
在化學(xué)實驗教學(xué)中，有許多實驗現(xiàn)象是無法直接感知的，而且不乏一些危險系數(shù)較大的實驗，教師不能為了加深學(xué)生對實驗的印象，而冒險用危險實驗去直接驗證結(jié)論。但是使用多媒體技術(shù)模擬這些實驗，可以將危險因子扼殺在搖籃之內(nèi)，讓學(xué)生留下終身難忘的記憶。比如演練“加熱高錳酸鉀制氧氣”這個實驗，實驗結(jié)束前的最后一個步驟是熄滅酒精燈并撤走水槽。在實際教學(xué)中，對于這個過程的留心之處在于先撤走水槽，然后再熄滅酒精燈。如果順序顛倒，有可能導(dǎo)致水倒流，進而導(dǎo)致試管炸裂，傷害人體。對于這樣一個錯誤的操作過程，教師不能用實驗直接演示給學(xué)生看，而是可以通過Flas來模擬水的倒流與試管炸裂的過程，加強學(xué)生的印象，促使他們養(yǎng)成嚴謹?shù)目茖W(xué)精神。諸如此類的實驗還有很多，比如將水倒入濃硫酸中，稀釋濃硫酸；一氧化碳還原氧化鐵時，先加熱后通一氧化碳。這類危險性實驗都可借助多媒體演練。
三、化抽象為具體
化學(xué)概念基本都是繁雜、抽象的，諸多概念難以讓學(xué)生在短時間內(nèi)接受和理解。比如對于物質(zhì)的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)內(nèi)容，既看不到，又摸不著，很難讓學(xué)生充分把握這些化學(xué)內(nèi)容。在傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)模式下，教師基本借助掛圖和模型，再加以一定的語言講解讓學(xué)生理解這部分知識。雖然這樣的教學(xué)方式有些許成效，但是對于微粒運動變化的過程卻無法利用掛圖與模型充分展示，這樣的教學(xué)方式固定、僵化，因而難以收到應(yīng)有的教學(xué)效果。借助多媒體計算機技術(shù)可以將微觀抽象的化學(xué)內(nèi)容進行二維或三維模擬，利用圖形、圖像、文字、動畫或視頻等方式為學(xué)生提供豐富的感性材料，將難以演練的實驗具體化，將難以想象的微觀世界宏觀化，使學(xué)生透過現(xiàn)象看本質(zhì)，突破化學(xué)教學(xué)的難點與重點。比如教師可以利用多媒體動畫方式將“原子”的內(nèi)容宏觀化，讓學(xué)生通過氧化汞分子的分解實驗理解原子改變，這種變小為大的演練流程可以幫助學(xué)生更好地理解化學(xué)知識。
【論文關(guān)鍵詞】時代性;文化的主導(dǎo)權(quán);平民化;生活化
有人說.，影視作品“平實化意識的自覺是對中國傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)的承繼，有利于打造電視劇的民族文化品牌”，作為一個影視藝術(shù)愛好者和華夏五千年悠久文化的追隨者，筆者認為很有必要對當(dāng)代影視文化與中國傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)的關(guān)系給予足夠的重視。
誠然，影視藝術(shù)是諸多藝術(shù)類型中最具時代特性的一種藝術(shù)樣式。影視藝術(shù)的時代特性一方面是由其賴以生成和發(fā)展的基本條件決定的，另一方面也取決于其內(nèi)在的美學(xué)品格。影視作為一種文化既具有其他藝術(shù)樣式難以比擬的發(fā)展前景和潛力，也是接受范圍最廣的藝術(shù)形式，同時由于其市場化、商業(yè)化的特點，影視作品也成為最受大眾影響的一種藝術(shù)形式。影視文化作為一種具有突出的審美意識形態(tài)特性的社會現(xiàn)象，其市場形態(tài)表征著社會發(fā)展的基本狀況與內(nèi)涵，同時，影視藝術(shù)的發(fā)展與衍變又勢必受到民族審美心理、倫理道德水準等諸多方面的制約和影響，因此，某一國或者某一民族的影視藝術(shù)要健康、繼續(xù)的發(fā)展就必須同時兼顧到以上諸多因素的影響。
一、電視文化的時代性
一在現(xiàn)有的諸多藝術(shù)種類中，電影和電視無疑最具有時代性的。電影和電視在當(dāng)代藝術(shù)文化的發(fā)展中，無論其表現(xiàn)形式、藝術(shù)語言，還是其文化意蘊，都體現(xiàn)出濃郁的創(chuàng)新意識和時代特征。筆者認為，影視文化的時代性特點，突出地表現(xiàn)在以下幾個方面:第一，藝術(shù)與商業(yè)并重。1895年，盧米埃爾兄弟第一次向社會售票在巴黎卡普辛路14號大咖啡館的地下室里公映電影《工廠的大門》標志著電影的誕生。影視藝術(shù)自誕生之日起便和市場有了割不斷的聯(lián)系，經(jīng)由百余年的運作，已成為一門具有鮮明市場特性的藝術(shù)。同時，由于影視作品通俗性、大眾性特點，以及其藝術(shù)表現(xiàn)形式與內(nèi)涵的豐富性，使得影視作品同時具有了娛樂與審美的雙重功能。綜觀當(dāng)代的影視作品，不難發(fā)現(xiàn)，娛樂的未必是優(yōu)秀的、美的，但優(yōu)秀的作品之中必定有娛樂的成分，只有關(guān)注藝術(shù)接受者，讓廣大觀眾得到愉悅感和滿足感一，與其審美經(jīng)驗和審美期待產(chǎn)生共鳴，影視作品才有市場，也才有能力繼續(xù)運作。因此，影視文化的娛樂功能顯然大于文學(xué)等藝術(shù)種類，只有在將市場牢牢把握的同時關(guān)注文化內(nèi)涵，才能算是優(yōu)秀的作品。第二，傳播的迅速和受眾的廣泛。影視文化，特別是電視，其傳播區(qū)域的廣泛和速度的迅捷顯然是無以倫比的，由此也帶來了藝術(shù)信息的極大增殖，以及人們對現(xiàn)代傳播媒體的高度重視;.同時由于影視文化藝術(shù)作品傳播的迅捷和覆蓋區(qū)域的廣泛，影視作品，特別是電視作品，幾乎在面世后的第一時間就會受到社會的關(guān)注，觀眾的審美情趣與接受心理以及意識形態(tài)與價值觀念等方面的評判，這些因素也對影視文化極大的壓力和挑戰(zhàn);第三，對現(xiàn)代科技的倚重。作為現(xiàn)代科技發(fā)展的附屬產(chǎn)物的電影與電視藝術(shù)，愈來愈離不開最新科技成就的促動;每一項對藝術(shù)可能產(chǎn)生影響的科技成果，幾乎都會同步地運用于電影電視的制作與傳播之中。因此，可以說影視藝術(shù)作品體現(xiàn)著時展的脈搏和大眾審美理想和接受心理變化的曲線，影視文化的健康發(fā)展首先必須在二者之間找到一個平衡點。
二、沖擊·反思·回歸
回顧電影誕生后的這一個多世紀，我國在文化藝術(shù)方面的對外交流一直是輸入大于輸出，這與我們的綜合國力以及在世界上的地位直接相關(guān)。實行改革開放以來，我國的綜合國力大大增強，但在漢寸外文化藝術(shù)交流方面的不對等現(xiàn)象并未得到根本改變，我國的影視文化在艱難成長的同時不斷受到外來文化的沖擊和誤導(dǎo)。在這個科技高速發(fā)展，高度信息化的時代，人們采用高科技手段，大大增進了信息流通和傳播的效能，對于文化藝術(shù)活動產(chǎn)生了積極的作用，驅(qū)動著文化藝術(shù)事業(yè)的整體性發(fā)展。但同時也應(yīng)看到，伴隨信息化而來的西方特別是美國的文化模式對我國的文化安全與文化有著負面的影響。
長期以來，由于西方一些人堅持所謂“西方文化中心”論，更有少數(shù)別有用心的人鼓吹所謂“文化一體化”，將西方文化和價值觀強加于其他國家的文化基土之上;在國內(nèi)，也有一些人持類同的觀點，似乎一提及國際間文化交流，就應(yīng)該是對于西方特別是美國文化的盲目引進。然而，和影視技術(shù)與制作、藝術(shù)市場管理科學(xué)等具象的科學(xué)技術(shù)不同，影視文化具有很強的意識形態(tài)性和民族性，不能以某一種文化模式來規(guī)范和代替其他國家或者民族影視藝術(shù)的發(fā)展。有感于此，很多有識之士提出了維護中國影視文化發(fā)展的主導(dǎo)權(quán)的倡議，“中國電視劇要堅持‘民族性’和開放的姿態(tài)，并且堅決反對西方文化霸權(quán)的滲透，保護自己的“文化”。
丹納曾經(jīng)說:“不管在復(fù)雜的還是簡單的情形之下，總是環(huán)境，就是風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣與時代精神，決定藝術(shù)的種類?！比绻晃蹲冯S西方文化的審美情趣，一味追求高科技手段帶來的視覺效果，一味依賴市場條件下的商業(yè)運作，而背離我國影視文化生長的土壤，只會逐漸扼殺其生存的空間。曾經(jīng)指導(dǎo)過《推手》《喜宴》等深刻挖掘新時期下民族心理擅變的優(yōu)秀作品的華裔導(dǎo)演李安指導(dǎo)的電影《臥虎藏龍》就是值得反思的。影片雖然講述的是一個傳統(tǒng)的中國式的含蓄的愛情故事，也奪得了2001年奧斯卡最佳外語片提名，卻沒有在國內(nèi)取得預(yù)想的收效。究其原因，蜻蜓點水、燕過無痕式的武術(shù)動作吸引了西方人好奇的目光，卻忽視中國觀眾原有的審美情趣和接受心理，這樣的處理自然不為中國觀眾接受。當(dāng)?shù)刂袊⒉环?yōu)秀的影視制作公司和藝術(shù)家，關(guān)鍵在于如何有效地利用和開掘廣博的中華傳統(tǒng)文化藝術(shù)的寶庫，使之生成更強大的藝術(shù)影響力。從本質(zhì)上講，提高當(dāng)代影視文化水準最根本的在于植根于本國和本民族深厚的傳統(tǒng)文化基礎(chǔ)，同時學(xué)習(xí)和借鑒其他國家和民族先進的科技手段，不斷提高我國影視作品的數(shù)量和質(zhì)量，才能夠使其為廣大國內(nèi)觀眾喜聞樂道，并且逐步在對外文化藝術(shù)市場上站穩(wěn)腳根，產(chǎn)生更大效應(yīng)。
三、影視文化的生活化和平民化
改革開放之初的十幾年間，我們的影視工作者曾經(jīng)走過很多彎路，有一批盲從于西方審美情趣和接受心理的作品問世，經(jīng)過一段時間的仿徨、掙扎和沉寂之后，中國的影視文藝工作者逐漸摸索出一條有中國特色的道路。近幾年一，以平民和家庭倫理為題材的國產(chǎn)影視劇的實踐，在中國影視文化的發(fā)展過程中取得了值得肯定成績。觀眾對那些反映平實生活的電視作品反映的熱烈程度遠盛于其他風(fēng)格的影視作品(其中反映當(dāng)代人婚戀困擾的有王海翎《牽手》，萬芳的《空鏡子》、《空房子》系列，還有關(guān)注掙扎在城市生活底層的農(nóng)民工生活狀態(tài)的《生存之民工》等)。平實化是傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)的重要法則，影視文化藝術(shù)平民化和生活化意識的自覺回歸就是對傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)平實化法則的繼承。這種有意識的反思和回歸有利于打造影視藝術(shù)文化的民族文化品牌。而在去年沸沸揚揚的批評聲中落下帷幕的“超級女生”選拔活動，不論其文化價值含量究竟有多少，但是正因為功利的存在，在“超女”評選進行過程中出現(xiàn)的凌亂感和在年輕的“超女”之間發(fā)生著的吵鬧，讓平民受眾感覺到市井生活的親切感，讓他們找到了最需要的，也是最真實的感覺，也因此讓湖南電視臺聲名鵲起，樹立了自己的文化品牌。
馬克思指出，不是意識決定生活，而是生活決定意識。雖然影視文化藝術(shù)是最昂貴的、受市場制約最強的藝術(shù)，受到成本大、版權(quán)引進以及傳播方式等方面的局限性，卻是當(dāng)代中國傳播范圍最廣、最迅捷的一種藝術(shù)形式，因此，廣大的影視藝術(shù)工作者不能不關(guān)注中國的社會現(xiàn)狀。目前我國東部和西部，沿海和內(nèi)陸，城市和農(nóng)村貧富差距比較大，而這個擁有九億農(nóng)村人口的渙渙大國，不可能忽視占全部人口四分之三的農(nóng)村受眾和城市普通百姓的經(jīng)濟接受能力和審美價值取向，不能不把更多精力放在對傳達他們審美理想上。目前，大眾審美文化的崛起和興盛是影視文化藝術(shù)市場的突出表征，這是中國處于社會轉(zhuǎn)型期出現(xiàn)的必然現(xiàn)象，符合馬克思對于第一性和第二性的論斷，同時也是對傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)思想平實化的回歸。
新時期煤炭企業(yè)安全文化構(gòu)建必須在思路上明確、清晰，這樣才能有效地構(gòu)建企業(yè)安全文化，并以安全文化促進企業(yè)的持續(xù)發(fā)展。新時期煤炭企業(yè)安全文化構(gòu)建應(yīng)在思路上確立如下兩個要點：一是安全文化構(gòu)建和企業(yè)思想政治教育相結(jié)合。企業(yè)文化建設(shè)和思想政治教育之間存在密切的關(guān)聯(lián)性，因此安全文化構(gòu)建必須和企業(yè)思想政治教育相結(jié)合。這種結(jié)合不僅僅是在觀念上的結(jié)合，更要實現(xiàn)目標、方針、措施等多方面的共同結(jié)合。具體來說，新時期煤炭企業(yè)應(yīng)將安全文化構(gòu)建融入到思想政治教育中去，以思想政治教育的開展促進安全文化建設(shè)，以安全文化建設(shè)豐富思想政治教育的內(nèi)涵，從而實現(xiàn)安全文化構(gòu)建和思想政治教育之間的聯(lián)動。二是安全文化構(gòu)建和企業(yè)規(guī)章制度建設(shè)相結(jié)合。
煤炭企業(yè)安全文化構(gòu)建還應(yīng)和企業(yè)規(guī)章制度建設(shè)相結(jié)合。從媒體公開的企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)事故來看，出了安全生產(chǎn)事故的企業(yè)往往在企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)規(guī)章制度上存在很多漏洞和隱患，并在適當(dāng)?shù)臅r機爆發(fā)出來。血的教訓(xùn)要求我們，為了實現(xiàn)企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)，必須完全企業(yè)的安全生產(chǎn)規(guī)章制度。如果說良好的企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)文化屬于“軟實力”，那么完善的企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)規(guī)章制度就屬于“硬實力”，煤炭企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)的實現(xiàn)必須同時注重“軟實力”和“硬實力”的培養(yǎng)，并使兩者相互促進、相互提升，共同促進企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)的實現(xiàn)。
二、新時期煤炭企業(yè)安全文化構(gòu)建的具體對策
那么，新時期煤炭企業(yè)究竟應(yīng)如何構(gòu)建企業(yè)安全文化呢？結(jié)合筆者對煤炭企業(yè)生產(chǎn)特點的把握和對企業(yè)思想政治工作、企業(yè)文化建設(shè)工作的認識，提出如下三點建議，并將其歸納為“三個注重”：
一是注重職工思想上安全觀念的提升。煤炭企業(yè)為了構(gòu)建良性的安全文化，應(yīng)首先注重職工在思想上安全觀念的提升，應(yīng)使職工認識到，安全生產(chǎn)乃頭等大事，必須狠抓不放。為了有效地實現(xiàn)職工思想上安全觀念的提升，企業(yè)應(yīng)在安全文化構(gòu)建中以多元化、全方位的理念，激勵和懲戒并重，使職工能夠在觀念上樹立安全生產(chǎn)意識。
二是注重企業(yè)制度上安全隱患的排除。安全事故往往是由于安全生產(chǎn)制度上的隱患所導(dǎo)致的，因此煤炭企業(yè)為了實現(xiàn)安全生產(chǎn)，必須注重安全隱患的排除。在安全文化構(gòu)建中，煤炭企業(yè)可以踐行群眾路線，發(fā)動廣大職工干部，要求他們將各自崗位上的安全隱患積極排查和上報，并由企業(yè)制定統(tǒng)一的整改方案，確保安全隱患能夠得到有效消除，以實現(xiàn)企業(yè)在安全生產(chǎn)過程中做到萬無一失。
論文摘要：從孔子為代表的儒家美學(xué)思想的倫理性特點、“比德”理論、倫理判斷影響審美判斷三方面入手簡析了中國傳統(tǒng)審美文化的倫理性特點，并指出中國社會長期處于宗法社會以及儒家思想的促進作用是形成中國傳統(tǒng)審美文化倫理性特點的原因。
一、中國傳統(tǒng)審美文化的倫理性特點
中國的傳統(tǒng)文化發(fā)展到今天已經(jīng)有了幾千年的歷史，悠久博大的文化傳承至今沒有出現(xiàn)中斷，這在世界幾大文明古國中是唯一的奇跡。在這深厚的歷史積淀中，中國傳統(tǒng)文化的倫理學(xué)特點是非常值得注意的一點，而審美文化也就不可避免地表現(xiàn)出這一特征。
(一)以孔予為代表的儒家美學(xué)思想的倫理性
這一點在藝術(shù)還沒有完全自覺的時代表現(xiàn)得很突出，尤其是強調(diào)倫理綱常的儒家學(xué)說更是如此，它既是這一特征的表現(xiàn)，也是推動傳統(tǒng)審美倫理性特點形成的思想動力?！墩撜Z》中孔子關(guān)于美的看法就很有代表性。
在“美”與“善”的關(guān)系上，孔子曾說：“君子成人之美，不成人之惡。小人反是?！?《論語·顏淵篇》)可見在孔子之時，“美”與“善”還存在著互換使用的現(xiàn)象，又如子張問孑L子“何謂五美”，孔子答日：“君子惠而不費，勞而不怨，欲而不談，泰而不驕，威而不猛?！?《論語·堯日篇》)直陳出五種德行。但這并非意味著孔子對“美”和“善”的使用是沒有分別的，比如孔子評論《韶》“盡美矣，又盡善也”，評論《武》“盡美矣，未盡善也”(論語·八佾篇)，足見二者不同。然而這也不能說明孔子已經(jīng)具有了獨立自覺的美學(xué)標準，《韶》或《武》都是古樂舞，以藝術(shù)自覺的眼光來看，這當(dāng)然是屬于藝術(shù)表演，但在那個藝術(shù)沒有獨立和自覺的時代，同樣的欣賞活動就不純?nèi)皇菍徝阑顒恿?。故而孔子在對樂舞進行鑒賞評論時，在總體把握上就不會采取單純的美學(xué)尺度。對《韶》、《武》的評價來看，孔子無疑是認為《韶》要優(yōu)于《武》的，原因就在于“盡善”與否。舜有德，堯把位置禪讓給他，《韶》樂和贊美舜有關(guān)，而《武》所贊美的武王，是以武力取得了政權(quán)，孔子對于這一點不甚認可，認為其“未盡善”，可見倫理標準在孔子對樂舞欣賞的判斷中起了多大作用!
在類似于“形式”與“內(nèi)容”關(guān)系的“文”“質(zhì)”關(guān)系和“言”“德”關(guān)系上，孔子認為“質(zhì)勝文則野，文勝質(zhì)則史。文質(zhì)彬彬，然后君子”(《論語·雍也篇》)，雖然看起來是將“文”“質(zhì)”同等看待了，但“文質(zhì)彬彬”所成就的是“君子”，仍然是從倫理學(xué)著眼的。又如“有德者必有言，有言者不必有德”(《論語·憲問篇》)，在這一句中，孔子把德行和一個人的言辭用必然關(guān)系相聯(lián)系，結(jié)合他“巧言令色，鮮矣仁”、“惡利口之覆家邦者”等等其他語錄可以看得出，他真正看重的還是德行。
而在對待《詩》和“樂”上，孔子首先著眼的是它們的道德教化作用?！芭d于詩、立于禮、成于樂”(《論語·泰伯篇》)、“詩，可以興，可以觀，可以群，可以怨。邇之事父，遠之事君；多識于鳥獸草木之名”(《論語·陽貨篇》)都體現(xiàn)了這一點?！蛾栘浧酚醒裕骸皹吩茦吩?，鐘鼓云乎哉?”可見孔子認為“樂”不僅僅只是敲敲鐘鼓弄出樂音這么一個簡單的形式，而是因為它蘊含的思想能給人熏陶，能陶冶人心，凈化風(fēng)俗。所以孔子說：“文之以禮樂，亦可以為成人矣?！?《論語·憲問篇》)
(二)將物比人的“比德”思想
將自然萬物的美與人的美德相聯(lián)系，也是傳統(tǒng)審美文化的一大倫理性特點。在《詩經(jīng)》中已有體現(xiàn)，比如《小雅·白駒》：“皎皎白駒，在彼空谷。生芻一束，其人如玉。”以“皎皎白駒”比擬隱逸林中的高潔之士?！肚仫L(fēng)·小戎》：“言念君子，溫其如玉?！币杂竦臏貪櫛葦M君子品格寬和。在《論語·雍也》中則有“智者樂水，仁者樂山”，將山之穩(wěn)重不遷比仁者寬厚的胸懷安靜的性情，將水之靈動不拘比智者敏捷的思維好動的性情。屈原的《離騷》以佩飾香草比喻個人的美德和多才多藝：“紛吾既有此內(nèi)美兮，又重之以修能。扈江離與辟芷兮，紉秋蘭以為佩?！币圆菽镜蛄?、美人將暮比擬報國的衷情和焦慮：“日月忽其不淹兮，春與秋其代序。惟草木之零落兮，恐美人之遲暮?！倍摹督垌灐穭t以桔樹比擬其高潔的情懷和獨立不羈的精神，“后皇嘉樹，桔徠服兮。受命不遷，生南國兮。固深難徙，更壹志兮……蘇世獨立，橫而不流兮。閉心自慎，終不失過兮。秉德無私，參天地兮”。如此發(fā)展下去，后世把梅蘭竹菊稱為“四君子”，成為歷代文人墨客吟哦賦詩、揮灑作畫的經(jīng)典對象。宋代周敦頤的《愛蓮說》是“比德”影響創(chuàng)作的極好例證：“水陸草木之花，可愛者甚蕃。晉陶淵明獨愛菊；自李唐來，世人盛愛牡丹；予獨愛蓮之出淤泥而不染，濯清漣而不妖，中通外直，不蔓不枝，香遠益清，亭亭凈植，可遠觀而不可褻玩焉。予謂菊，花之隱逸者也；牡丹，花之富貴者也；蓮，花之君子者也?！?/p>
(三)倫理判斷影響審美判斷
傳統(tǒng)審美文化的倫理性特點還表現(xiàn)在對藝術(shù)作品進行審美判斷的時候，往往會受到倫理判斷的影響，甚至倫理判斷還會起到第一位的決定作用。
典型的例子就是“因人廢字”。司馬光《治通鑒》有言：德勝才謂之君子，才勝德謂之小人。很多人認為把人品低下的書家的書法作品收藏家中，等于收藏了邪惡之氣，不僅玷污了家風(fēng)，也有損于自己的人品。因此，奸臣蔡京、秦檜、嚴蒿等雖堪稱書法大家，但他們的書法作品留傳下來的卻極少。書法史上有“蘇黃米蔡”的“宋四家”之說，前三位均無疑問，唯獨“蔡”，有人認為是蔡襄，有人認為是蔡京。最早對宋四家進行解釋的應(yīng)當(dāng)是明初的王紱，他在《書畫傳習(xí)錄》中提到宋四家的“蔡”是指蔡京，而后人因為蔡京是宋徽宗一朝的奸臣，遂以蔡襄代之。
宋徽宗的“瘦金體”，從藝術(shù)上來看，橫畫收筆帶鉤，豎畫收筆帶點，撇如匕首，捺如切刀，每筆的尾鉤都異常銳利、力透紙背，體現(xiàn)出宋徽宗極高的藝術(shù)天賦，然而因為徽宗朝奸相輔政，宦官掌兵，徽宗本人又貪戀女色等等原因，竟使得“瘦金體”落有“柔媚輕浮”、“鋒芒畢露”的評語。
二．傳統(tǒng)審美文化倫理性特點的成因
如果將“美”字進行字源考察，就會發(fā)現(xiàn)中國傳統(tǒng)審美文化從萌芽時期就與實用性有著關(guān)聯(lián)，不論是“羊大為美”還是“羊人為美”，都有著很強的實用性意味?！墩f文解字》云：“美，甘也。從羊，從大。羊在六畜主給膳也。美與善同意?！彼未煦C補注《說文》日：“羊大則美，故從大?！币簿褪钦f羊的體肥毛密不僅體現(xiàn)著旺盛的生命力，而且在味覺上給人以肥美味甘的味覺感受。而在甲骨文和金文中“美”字都是由上邊的“羊”和下邊的“人”組成，在甲骨文中，“大”訓(xùn)“人”，漢字的造字是有比類取象原則的，在羊的下部畫上“大”象，有一種促進羊繁殖生長的巫術(shù)意味。審美最初與實用相聯(lián)系并不難理解，但中國傳統(tǒng)審美文化又是因何逐步表現(xiàn)出倫理性特點的呢?筆者分析可能與以下兩點原因有關(guān)：超級秘書網(wǎng)
(一)長期處于宗法社會
人類社會的發(fā)展軌跡，大體上都是由氏族血緣政治向文明地緣政治進化。
(二)儒家倫理思想的熏陶
前邊已經(jīng)提到，一種思想既是其文化土壤特征的反映，又在相當(dāng)程度上推動文化特征的發(fā)展。儒家思想誕生于宗法制的文化背景下，而且又是主張維護這種文化秩序的。由于學(xué)說本身的強大生命力，在統(tǒng)治者的扶植下，儒家思想“君君，臣臣，父父，子子”的倫常主張，“三綱五常”的秩序規(guī)則，一步步地形成深厚的文化積淀，最終形成了家國同構(gòu)的社會現(xiàn)實和忠孝一體的倫理觀念。
個的所謂文學(xué)的時代(即使不是全部)將不復(fù)存在。哲學(xué)、精神分析學(xué)都在劫難逃,甚至連情書也不能幸免?！倍鴮鴥?nèi)文論界影響甚大的美國學(xué)者米勒也斷言:“文學(xué)研究的時代已經(jīng)過去了,再也不會出現(xiàn)這樣一個時代——為了文學(xué)自身的目的。撇開理論或政治方面的考慮而去單純研究文學(xué)……文學(xué)研究從來就沒有正當(dāng)時的時候,不論過去現(xiàn)在還是將來?！雹僭谶@些危言聳聽的論調(diào)中,他們斷言在媒介化時代,“文學(xué)的時代”或“文學(xué)研究的時代”已不復(fù)存在。國內(nèi)學(xué)者也為此展開了激烈的論爭。然而從事實看,“文學(xué)終結(jié)”的判斷不免過于悲觀,只不過是文學(xué)已失去往昔的光環(huán)和影響,文學(xué)的生產(chǎn)、傳播和接受方式發(fā)生了前所未有的變化。在這個“圖像化”時代,文學(xué)的身影早就穿越抽象的語言文字符號而游蕩于電影、電視和互聯(lián)網(wǎng)。瓦爾特?本雅明早在其《機械復(fù)制時代的藝術(shù)》中就提出“新的技術(shù)、新的生產(chǎn)和消費方式將創(chuàng)造出一種全新的生活方式,因而對文學(xué)產(chǎn)生根本性的影響”②。從這個意義上說,傳媒時代的文學(xué)并沒有終結(jié),而是以更加多樣化的形態(tài)活躍在我們的生活中。最為顯著的就是在傳播媒體發(fā)達的今天,文學(xué)傳播的方式和途徑不再局限于語言文字媒介,其跨媒體傳播成為現(xiàn)實,尤其文學(xué)作品與影視傳媒的關(guān)系愈益密切。本文在分析文學(xué)作品影視化生存現(xiàn)狀的基礎(chǔ)上,著重探討文學(xué)與影視傳媒之間的差異與聯(lián)系。
一
從歷史的追溯來看,文學(xué)作品與影視之間有著源遠流長的關(guān)系。曾有人做過細致的統(tǒng)計,自有電影以來,大約70%以上的中外故事片都改編自文學(xué)名著(主要是小說)?？梢哉f,文學(xué)作品是影視創(chuàng)作的重要源泉,影視藝術(shù)的長足進步都受益于文學(xué)藝術(shù)。從我們熟悉的中國影視劇現(xiàn)狀來看,從20世紀80年代起我國影視事業(yè)發(fā)展迅猛。文學(xué)作品的身影不斷出現(xiàn)于熒屏上。從古典文學(xué)名著《水滸傳》《西游記》《三國演義》《紅樓夢》的一再翻拍,從紅色經(jīng)典到名家名作等現(xiàn)代文學(xué)作品的改編,再到當(dāng)代作家作品不斷被搬上影視屏幕,可以列出一長串名單:《日出》《雷雨》《鐵道游擊隊》《青春之歌》《敵后武工隊》《家》《子夜》《傾城之戀》《四世同堂》《金粉世家》《啼笑姻緣》《亮劍》《大雪無痕》《喬家大院》,等等,瓊瑤的言情小說、金庸的武俠著作大多都被改編為電視劇。近幾年收視率高的電視劇幾乎無一不是來自于改編。不僅如此,小說改編為電影的數(shù)量也很龐大。80年代的《芙蓉鎮(zhèn)》《黃土地》《紅高粱》等優(yōu)秀電影作品都是改編自文學(xué)作品,我國第五代導(dǎo)演蜚聲世界影壇的影片幾乎都是來自于對文學(xué)原著的改編。這可以當(dāng)代作品的改編狀況為例,如王朔的《頑主》《輪回》《大喘氣》《一半是火焰,一半是海水》《永失我愛》,根據(jù)《動物兇猛》改編的《陽光燦爛的日子》;蘇童的小說《妻妾成群》改成了《大紅燈籠高高掛》,還有《紅粉》和《米》也相繼改編成電影;張平的作品《抉擇》改編成電影《生死抉擇》后,創(chuàng)造了國產(chǎn)影片票房的佳績。
可見,影視一直就與文學(xué)作品攜手共進。當(dāng)代很多作家與電影、電視結(jié)下不解之緣。如瓊瑤、王朔、海巖、池莉、王海翎等。說到底,影視作品以文學(xué)作品為底本可以事半功倍,而以知名度高的經(jīng)典著作和暢銷書為改編對象,更可以吸引觀眾注意。作為作家本人來說,作品改編后的經(jīng)濟效益要遠遠高于稿酬,文學(xué)創(chuàng)作一般以字數(shù)計稿酬,千字一二百元錢,而電視劇名家稿酬一集多達上萬元;另外,隨著影視作品的流行,作家的知名度可以得到大大提升。
因此,從改編作品的數(shù)量看,文學(xué)作品的影視化生存已是不可否認的事實。既然如此,就有必要在理論上澄清如下問題:如何看待文學(xué)的這種跨媒體傳播?兩者究竟是天敵還是盟友?文學(xué)與影視之間既有差異又有關(guān)聯(lián),從抽象的符號載體到生動的圖像藝術(shù)的轉(zhuǎn)變對文學(xué)來說到底是利是弊?文學(xué)與影視如何實現(xiàn)良性互動?
二
盡管文學(xué)與影視有著密切關(guān)聯(lián),但兩者在諸多方面有著不同。
其一,傳播符號不同——形象的間接性與直接性。文學(xué)是一種語言藝術(shù),它的載體是抽象的語言符號。語言與其他藝術(shù)所使用的材料相比,最為自由和靈活,它能直 接表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)實和想象中的事物;而且它能夠深刻細膩地傳達思想情感,表現(xiàn)人豐富的內(nèi)心世界。這與影視作品直接的、感性的畫面不同。形象的間接性能夠給讀者的想象留下了廣闊的心理空間,而在圖像中,一切都直接、生動。不識字的觀眾也可以欣賞劇情,畫面的視覺吸引比起閱讀來更直接、更輕松。這使得許多讀者直接放棄閱讀轉(zhuǎn)而看影視劇。&ldquo
;如今文學(xué)似乎進入了一個‘看圖’時代,文學(xué)與影、視、網(wǎng)絡(luò)的合一使之在很大程度上從傳統(tǒng)的語言藝術(shù)變成‘圖像藝術(shù)’:電視劇是將小說變成了圖像,詩TV、散文TV是將詩文變成了圖像,MTV是將歌曲變成了圖像?！雹?/p>
其二,創(chuàng)作過程不同——標準化與個性化。這體現(xiàn)在文學(xué)創(chuàng)作與影視制作過程的不同。影視文藝的編導(dǎo)與制作強調(diào)標準化和模式化,這與傳統(tǒng)文學(xué)強調(diào)的獨立性、個人性、自主性完全不同。影視傳媒是與商業(yè)和娛樂緊密相連的藝術(shù)樣式和工業(yè)生產(chǎn)形式,影視劇是一個多行當(dāng)、多部門共同參與的綜合性藝術(shù),從市場可行性方案到劇本的創(chuàng)作與修改,再到主創(chuàng)人員的確定包括編劇、導(dǎo)演、演員、攝影、錄像、美工、服裝、道具,等等,加上前期拍攝到后期制作、發(fā)行銷售等各個環(huán)節(jié)。而文學(xué)創(chuàng)作相對來說簡單得多,在作家創(chuàng)作個性、情感、想象、直覺等心理因素的共同作用下,創(chuàng)作出獨創(chuàng)性的文本?？梢?不同于電影的標準化、工業(yè)化、模式化,文學(xué)創(chuàng)作更是偏向于個人化。
其三,創(chuàng)作目的不同——商業(yè)性與文學(xué)性。正因為影視劇制作是工業(yè)化產(chǎn)品,它更多地遵循商業(yè)原則,一切以市場效益為判斷標準,簡單地說就是要追求收視率,追求票房。任何一部電影或電視劇的制作離不開大量的資金,姑且不論大片動輒上億的大投入,就是一般制作的電影成本也是上百萬、上千萬之多,有投入就要考慮產(chǎn)出。而在純文學(xué)創(chuàng)作中更多地注重作家獨特的人生體驗與語言表達,是一種非功利性的精神活動。
正因為如此兩者有著諸多差異,作為獨立的藝術(shù)門類,它們有不同的藝術(shù)發(fā)展規(guī)律。當(dāng)文學(xué)文本轉(zhuǎn)換為影視文本時,由于節(jié)奏、載體、性質(zhì)的不同,兩者會產(chǎn)生一系列的轉(zhuǎn)換,這就涉及轉(zhuǎn)換過程中的重要環(huán)節(jié)——改編。在以往文學(xué)的影像改編中,通常遵循的是忠實于原著的準則,在作品主題內(nèi)涵、人物形象等方面,嚴格依照原著進行改編?！霸谶@種轉(zhuǎn)換中,文學(xué)原著的美學(xué)風(fēng)格和精神內(nèi)涵,通常是整體性地被移植到影像作品之中,雖然原著中的情節(jié)、人物有不同程度的刪減和改變,但主體部分、審美內(nèi)質(zhì)并未發(fā)生變化,甚至許多局部和細節(jié)的改動,是為了更好地強化、提升和拓展原著的審美內(nèi)質(zhì)和精神內(nèi)涵?！雹鼙热缫浴秶恰贰度龂萘x》為代表的改編實踐,將原著深刻的思想文化內(nèi)涵納入通俗化的表現(xiàn)形態(tài)之中,其經(jīng)典魅力在新的媒介形態(tài)中得到了延續(xù)和拓展。
而隨著消費文化的盛行,影視產(chǎn)業(yè)商業(yè)化的色彩愈益影響到文學(xué)作品的改編過程。當(dāng)前的文學(xué)改編大多已不再遵循忠實于原著的原則。為了追求收視率和票房,情節(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)被隨心所欲地調(diào)整;為了迎合觀眾的趣味,人物形象被隨意顛覆或解構(gòu),嘩眾取寵之作比比皆是。除此之外,某些根據(jù)文學(xué)作品改編的影視藝術(shù)作品由于影視的標準化、模式化而損害了原著深刻的審美意蘊 。為了追求收視率和娛樂性,將文學(xué)娛樂化、庸俗化地進行“改編”,尤其對一些經(jīng)典作品的改編簡直就是歪曲和褻瀆。這種所謂的“改編”只是打著幌子,絲毫不尊重文學(xué)原著的內(nèi)容與主題。對文學(xué)文本的肆意改編,一味地以大眾審美趣味為核心進行影視文本的創(chuàng)作,無疑會損害文學(xué)作品的審美價值;反之,這種肆意改編也會影響影視劇的口碑?？傊?從文學(xué)抽象的語言符號轉(zhuǎn)換為影視直觀生動的圖像符號,不能無視文學(xué)作品本身,而應(yīng)在尊重作品的基礎(chǔ)上根據(jù)影視藝術(shù)的特征加以改編。
三
文學(xué)作品的影視化生存對作品本身而言意味著什么?是影視傳媒對文學(xué)的壓迫和擠壓,還是文學(xué)借助影視傳媒的延伸和拓展?不同學(xué)者給出不同的回答。國內(nèi)有學(xué)者提出:“在這場美學(xué)革命中,電影以其逼真性對于藝術(shù)的規(guī)則進行了重新的定義,在資本經(jīng)濟的協(xié)同作用下,作為藝術(shù)場域的后來居上者,它迫使文學(xué)走向邊緣。在此語境壓力下,文學(xué)家能夠選擇的策略是或者俯首稱臣,淪為電影文學(xué)腳本的文學(xué)師,或者以電影的敘事邏輯為模仿對象,企圖接受電影的招安,或者以種種語言或敘事企圖沖出重圍,卻不幸跌入無人喝彩的寂寞沙場?！膶W(xué)的黃昏已然來臨?！雹葸@樣的看法其實僅代表現(xiàn)實中的一種傾向:文學(xué)成為電視、電影的附庸?？陀^來看,影視傳媒確實對文學(xué)形成 沖擊,讀者的數(shù)量銳減,文學(xué)期刊的發(fā)行一蹶不振。但同時我們也應(yīng)該看到,影視傳媒的發(fā)展給文學(xué)文本帶來新的發(fā)展契機,文學(xué)的生命力在新傳媒中得到延伸?，F(xiàn)實中因影視劇的播放而帶動讀者閱讀的狀況也時有發(fā)生。而對影視劇來說,其發(fā)展從一開始便與文學(xué)密不可分,將文學(xué)作品搬上熒幕,豐富了影視的審美價值。 因此,文學(xué)與影視
之間并不存在絕對的矛盾,兩者之間應(yīng)該實現(xiàn)良性互動。一方面,影視因尊重文學(xué)而獲得了強大的藝術(shù)生命力;另一方面,文學(xué)應(yīng)該廣泛吸取影視的有益手段與技巧進一步豐富和拓展文學(xué)的表達,文學(xué)也因有了影視的傳播而產(chǎn)生更深遠的影響。兩者應(yīng)該在和諧互動中尋求共存共榮。需要注意的是,文學(xué)應(yīng)避免淪落為影視的附庸;影視不應(yīng)以犧牲文學(xué)價值為代價而片面追求收視率和票房,應(yīng)尊重文學(xué)作品,兩者的結(jié)盟才能相得益彰?？梢?小說與影視的結(jié)合應(yīng)保持各自的相對獨立才能互相補充。
總之,文學(xué)和影視有著不同的藝術(shù)規(guī)律和表達方式,它們的最終產(chǎn)品分別代表著兩種不同的美學(xué)種類,彼此之間并不存在非此即彼的敵對關(guān)系。影視有其優(yōu)勢,文字亦有其特點,文學(xué)和影視、文字與圖像將會永遠并存,共同充實著人們的精神世界。
注釋:
① J?希利斯?米勒:《全球化時代文學(xué)研究還會繼續(xù)存在嗎?》,《文學(xué)評論》,2001年第1期。
② [德]本雅明:《機械復(fù)制時代的藝術(shù)》 ,李偉、郭東編譯,重慶出版集團,2006年版,第38頁。
眾所周知，西方啟蒙運動之后，隨著人的理性和主體性的覺醒，在工業(yè)革命帶來的現(xiàn)代觀念語境條件下，先后催生了印象、后印象、立體、構(gòu)成、未來等各種藝術(shù)風(fēng)格和諸多流派的登場演繹。一般來說，我們認為的西方現(xiàn)代繪畫藝術(shù)的發(fā)端大概要源自于馬奈的繪畫作品《草地上的午餐》。
畫面上那有違傳統(tǒng)道德和生活邏輯的兩個女固然是引起當(dāng)時人們爭論的焦點，但事實證明，畫面呈現(xiàn)的平面感與弱化再現(xiàn)的構(gòu)成因素，卻是后來現(xiàn)代審美不可或缺的重要特征。不幸的是，這種物質(zhì)審美特征隨著西方現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)的發(fā)展最后在二十世紀中葉之后的極簡藝術(shù)和緊隨其后的觀念藝術(shù)中幾乎喪失殆盡，最后連繪畫本身都幾近取消，終于現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)在所謂“純粹”中概念化和哲學(xué)化。
的確，我們很難想象現(xiàn)代繪畫的歸宿居然是在純粹的“哲學(xué)化” 和“概念化”中終結(jié)的，事實上，被公認為現(xiàn)代繪畫藝術(shù)起源的馬奈的作品卻并不是純理性的哲學(xué)概念的外化。wWw.133229.Com盡管形式主義從某種意義上來說，是典型的現(xiàn)代主義表征，——這個我們可以從其后的立體派、構(gòu)成主義等風(fēng)格作品上明顯看到這種“工業(yè)社會”生成的美學(xué)特點。但對于馬奈那違反邏輯的“大片色塊”和“大塊面”的構(gòu)圖來說，也并不完全是純粹的抽象樣式，或者僅僅是略帶平面空間的意味，盡管我們現(xiàn)在已無法知曉當(dāng)時馬奈的真正意圖，但也許這樣處理才使得畫面本身更像一幅符合現(xiàn)代審美語境下的作品。正如當(dāng)時左拉評論的那樣：“馬奈并沒有承擔(dān)描繪某種抽象思想或某個歷史事件片段的工作?！?也就是說，馬奈既能從一般的敘事性題材中抽取出偶然的和非規(guī)范的審美因素，同時又避免了哲學(xué)化的絕對形而上。
的確，美學(xué)終究不等同于哲學(xué)，我們知道，盡管美學(xué)與哲學(xué)這兩門學(xué)科看似若即若離，其實，古希臘哲學(xué)家亞里斯多德的《詩學(xué)》，正是基于美的特質(zhì)才保持了它的獨立性并賦予了它與哲學(xué)并行不悖的特殊地位；于是才有了黑格爾將物質(zhì)呈現(xiàn)的“美”斷言為“理念的感性顯現(xiàn)”；克萊夫·貝爾的形式主義理論盡管為此后的抽象主義大開了方便之門，但他的“有意味的形式”顯然向人們昭示著其形式仍在審美的范疇之內(nèi)，他對其界定為“以一種特定方式組合的線條與色彩的組合，激起我們審美情感的某些形式和形式關(guān)系?！?/p>
毫無疑問，當(dāng)格林伯格那極端的“非常接近裝飾”的現(xiàn)代主義繪畫理想最終實現(xiàn)時，此時的現(xiàn)代主義風(fēng)格樣式仍然顯示著二十世紀中葉前衛(wèi)藝術(shù)實驗性的蓬勃生機，為什么呢？因為它仍然還沒有取消物質(zhì)上的審美形式。
我們不妨對照傳統(tǒng)意義上那些強調(diào)體積空間的自然主義構(gòu)圖格局與現(xiàn)代主義早期繪畫中那些二維平面性畫面上的形式，除了造型和空間形式的處理不同之外，我們將會看到一個共同的特點：這就是物質(zhì)審美特質(zhì)和美學(xué)形式仍然是兩者的共同之處。盡管現(xiàn)代審美有別于傳統(tǒng)意義上的“審美”范式。遺憾的是二十世紀六十年代之后的現(xiàn)代主義繪畫最終拋棄了這種物質(zhì)審美因素，終于使現(xiàn)代主義繪畫走向枯竭已成為不可避免。
可以說，物質(zhì)審美的缺失從某種意義上說，是物質(zhì)的失落，是對具有審美意義下的物質(zhì)因素的取消和否定。勿庸諱言，物質(zhì)審美的缺失，藝術(shù)的純粹哲學(xué)化，將無異于藝術(shù)的自殺！
假若說西方現(xiàn)代主義繪畫是在十九世紀末對以三維透視為主的自然寫實的傳統(tǒng)審美的可信性提出質(zhì)疑的話，那么早在我國晚唐時期，張彥遠在《歷代名畫記》中就指出：“傳移模寫，乃畫家末事?！辈⑻岢隽恕敖?jīng)營位置，則畫之總要” [1]一說，這種經(jīng)營構(gòu)成的審美思路是在繼謝赫的“六法論”上的一個發(fā)展和提升，多少有些類似現(xiàn)代的審美傾向，與西方現(xiàn)代繪畫的形式美學(xué)和構(gòu)成美學(xué)是不是有著異曲同工之妙呢？當(dāng)然，需要指出的是，中西方對寫實繪畫的變革是基于兩種不同的哲學(xué)觀、認識論和審美價值取向為出發(fā)點的，同時兩者的變革所產(chǎn)生的文化和社會背景也是不同的。同時也需要指出的是，雖然兩者從發(fā)生的時間和社會文化背景上不可同日而語，但藝術(shù)品味卻往往并不因此而出現(xiàn)先進與落后之分。
有意思的是，對于這一點在以后這兩種藝術(shù)主張的生成和發(fā)展過程中卻出現(xiàn)了兩種不同的結(jié)果：中國是以“文人畫”的水墨審美形式取代了傳統(tǒng)的寫實形式，最高精神品格的審美樣式是追求“逸格”，筆法上體現(xiàn)的正如宗炳提出的“山水以形媚道”[2]?！缎彤嬜V》中云：“進乎妙，則不知藝之為道，道之為藝?！逼涿钐幨恰暗浪嚭弦弧保缱诎兹A所解釋的：“‘道’尤表象于‘藝’，燦爛的‘藝’賦予‘道’以形象和生命，‘道’給予‘藝’以深度和靈魂。”然而，西方的現(xiàn)代繪畫卻在以后自由地實驗各種各樣的觀念和材料運用之后，最后完全超脫了以物質(zhì)審美作為依托，變成了純精神的抽象概念。
值得耐人尋味的是，以西方慣有的以物質(zhì)審美方式介入藝術(shù)的傳統(tǒng)一夜之間幾乎徹底顛覆。這使得觀念藝術(shù)家伯爾金（v.burgin）無不沮喪地驚呼：“我于1965年被迫放棄了繪畫，因為它是一種陳舊過時的技巧，這真是一個十分殘酷的原因?！?[3]
物質(zhì)審美的缺失讓藝術(shù)家的無奈竟至如此，這無異于是對西方現(xiàn)代繪畫的一個嘲弄。
參考文獻：
[1]何志明、潘運告編著 .《唐五代畫論——歷代名畫記》（第一版）[m].長沙：湖南美術(shù)出版社， 1997.4
1. Introduction 1
2. Definition and Types of Business Culture 1
2.1 Definition of Business Culture 1
2.2 Types of Business Culture 2
3. Differences and Conflicts between American and Chinese Business Culture 4
3.1 Different Structure and hierarchy in American and Chinese companies 4
3.2 Differences in Concepts and Values of American and Chinese Business Culture 7
4. Mutual-Adjustment of the Two Business Cultures 9
5.Conclusion 11
Acknowledgements 13
Bibliography: 14
1． Introduction
Business culture is the result of the commodity economy and the market economy. The so-called business culture, representing the method the company is using for the achievement of its unique purpose, is managing philosophy of arts in a company. In a word, business culture leads to the concept value of the company, the physical and psychical appearance of the whole staff, and the spiritual backbone of the company.
From the prospective of the long development view, the forming of the business culture is also the process of setting up the company brand name. Through gaining the public recognition of enterprise identification, the company is also exploring the broader market space. For setting up a successful enterprise brand name needs more than the investment, the equipment and technique input. A unique business culture is also a must. The cultural factor will be a vital force not only in the development of enterprises, but also in the process of raising the enterprise recognition and setting up of the brand name.
This article aims to analyze and debug conflicts between American culture and Chinese culture, expecting to provide a model for Chinese company business culture construction.
2. Definition and Types of Business Culture
2.1 Definition of Business Culture
Many articles and books have been written in recent years about culture in organizations, usually referred to as "Business culture". Here business culture refers to "the moral, social, and behavioral norms of an organization based on the beliefs, attitudes, and priorities of its members". Business culture is not a list of values developed at an offsite by the executive team and framed on the wall in their lobbies. These are ideals. Every organization has its own unique culture or value set. Most organizations don't consciously try to create a certain culture. The culture of the organization is typically created unconsciously, based on the values of the top management or the founders of an organization. In reality, what management pays attention to and rewards is often the strongest indicator of the business culture. This is often quite different from the values it verbalizes or the ideals it strives for. Culture drives the organization and its actions. It is somewhat like "the operating system" of the organization. It guides how employees think, act and feel. It is dynamic and fluid, and it is never static. A culture may be effective at one time, under a given set of circumstances and ineffective at another time. There is no generically good culture. There are, however, generic patterns of health and pathology.
2.2 Types of Business Culture
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner’s classification of the business culture is based on two dimensions, universalism-particularism and individualism-collectivism thus generating four quadrants. The dimensions they used to distinguish different business culture are equality-hierarchy and orientation to the person-orientation to the task. These two dimensions enable them to define four types of business culture. The four types can be described as family culture, Eiffel Tower culture, guided missile culture and incubator culture.
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner point out that these four types of business culture are “ideal types”. While in practice, the types are mixed or overlaid with one another. It’s rather complicated than our imagination. And this classification is useful for exploring the basis of each type in terms of how employees learn, change, resolve conflicts, reward, motivate and so on. (Wang, 2001:28)
2.2.1 Family Culture
According to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner, the metaphor of family culture poses a kind of close relationship within the whole organization. “ It is personal and at the same time hierarchical，in the sense that the ‘father’ of the family has experience and authority greatly exceeding those of his ‘children’, especially when they are young. As a result, the leader in the organization is regarded as a caring father who knows better than his subordinates what should be done and what is good for them. However, rather than being threatening, this type of power is essentially intimate and (hopefully) benign. The work of the corporation in this type of culture is usually carried forward in an atmosphere that in many respects mimics the home.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:24)
Father is always the represent ative of power and authority at home, especially in the Asian countries. However, he is also a caring father, whose power and authority seems quite intimate and benign, not threatening at all. (Here the absolute authority posed by some arbitrary leaders is exclusive in this setting). To some extend, the subordinates are passive to accept the arrangement and order of the father, but this order could essentially bring benefits to them. And the benign atmosphere of a big family is quite humanistic.
2.2.2 Eiffel Towel culture
As mentioned above, the nepotism within an organization would be regarded as corruption and a conflict of interest by some cultures for the reason that they emphasize on the various roles and functions prescribed in advance. They’re role-orientated. Everyone of the organization has been placed in a certain place, being responsible for the certain work prescribed by his or her supervisors. If every one of them dedicated to carry out their work successfully, the whole organization would be run smoothly forward. In other words, the whole organization assembles a pyramid，forming a certain kind of hierarchy. Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner have chosen the Eiffel Towel in Paris to symbolize this culture type, “because it is steep, symmetrical, narrow at the top and broad at the base, stable, rigid and robust.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:32)
It’s characteristic to some degree to assemble that of the work hierarchy in role-orientated corporations. And more importantly, “its structure, too, is more important than its function”. Therefore, the organization, including the supervisors and the subordinates, pay their attention to the structure of the organization rather than the functions. Function would be taken over by structure under certain circumstances.
2.2.3 Guided Missile Culture
Equality, or the egalitarian，is the characteristic of guided missile culture. Everyone in an organization has taken up an unchangeable place and no one could be replaced by another. The role of each individual has been greatly emphasized. Moreover, “the guided missile culture is oriented to tasks, typically undertaken by teams or project groups”. Team and project group is the focus of their work. To some extent, accomplishing a project usually becomes the goal for the supervisors and subordinates.
The guided missile culture differs from the family culture type and the Eiffel Towel culture type. Egalitarian within an organization is emphasized rather than the interpersonal relationship that is typical in the family culture type. Changes come quickly to the guided missile culture. New project and target will come, and new groups will be formed, and new boss of the project will be nominated soon. Consequently, loyalties to professions and projects are greater than loyalties to the company. “The guided missile culture is in many respects the antithesis of the family culture, in which bonds are close and ties are of long duration and deep affection.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:51)
Therefore, due to their task-orientated characteristics, it resembles the Eiffel Towel culture. The Eiffel Towel culture nevertheless pays attention to their inner structure rather than the egalitarian among the members, while the results of a project is what the guided missile culture emphasizes, not the means to accomplish it.
2.2.4 Incubator Culture
According to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner，the incubator culture is based on the existential idea that organizations are secondary to the fulfilment of individuals. The individuality is the most influential value within this kind of organizations. The cultural incubator is quite similar to the logic of business. Both of them are designed to free individuals from the routines to more creative activities and to minimize time spent on self-maintenance. As a result, “incubators often, if not always, operate in an environment of intense emotional commitment”. (Fons Trompenaars,2001:75) The employees and the employers are working toward a common goal, to bring something beneficial to the society and the mankind. And the well-being of themselves is not so important compared with the greatness of the work they’re undertaken. For example, the computer could bring “power to the person”, and the gene-splicing could save crops, save lives, rescue the economy. They enjoy the process of creating and innovating. And that’s the pleasure of their lives. Thus the shared enthusiasm and super-ordinate goals constitute the invisible tie that forms the close relationships among the work partners, thus creating an honest, effective, nurturing working atmosphere.
3. Differences and Conflicts between American and Chinese Business Culture
3.1 Different Structure and hierarchy in American and Chinese companies
3.1.1 Structure and hierarchy in American companies
American culture has some key conc epts and values such as individualism, low context culture and egalitarianism.
Individualism: The concept of individualism in the US plays a significant role in the lives of many Americans. American culture emphasizes individual initiative and personal achievement. Independence and self-reliance are highly valued and also extend to the workplace where business is frequently carried out autonomously. Consequently, one’s position in US society is determined by one’s own achievements as oppose to status or age.
Low context culture: Generally speaking, those cultures described as low context tend to communicate meaning and information explicitly through words. Americans are task-centered and thus the primary purpose of communication is to exchange information, facts, and opinions. In the US, conflict is dealt with directly and openly, and for this reason, Americans will not hesitate to say “no” or criticize others in public. This direct style of speech is often interpreted by foreigners as rude and may cause embarrassment to business people who are unaccustomed to such explicit communication. However, it is important to remember that in a business context it bears no relation to personal feelings and should not be taken as such.
Egalitarianism: An important element of American culture is the concept of equality. Despite the many differences within American society, there is a collective understanding of the notion of equality that underlines many social relationships in the US. Americans believe in having equal rights, equal social obligations, and equal opportunities based on the concept of individual merit. Consequently, there is a general lack of deference in the US to people of greater wealth, age, higher social status or authority. This is evident in the way in which titles are seldom used in business environments and how Americans call each other by their first names almost immediately. Egalitarianism also contributes to the system of merit frequently referred to as the “American Dream”, whereby hard work deserves success and financial prosperity. This in turn can often cause a dichotomy in the workplace and office hierarchy displaying a clear distinction between management and their subordinates.
In a country famous for its individualism and diversity, the organization and structure of companies within the US may differ according to the industry, region or company history. However, we can generally find that office hierarchy within an American company is extremely important.
Negotiations and final decisions in the US are frequently made by one person who has chief authority. Team negotiations are rarely carried out in American companies. In accordance with American business culture, the hierarchical chain of command often supersedes personal relationships. Personal competence, professionalism, and accountability for individual performance are highly valued in American business culture. As a result, managers are only approached for help in essential situations. These concepts also contribute to the highly competitive work ethic often experienced in the US. Developing personal relationships are not as significant in US business culture as they are in some Asian countries. In the United States, the overall goal of business is to secure the best deal, therefore forming company relationships are of greater value. And it is common for Americans to make clear distinctions between work colleagues and friends in their social life. In the US, meetings tend to be rather formal and little time is spent on cultivating social relationships.
3.1.2 Structure and hierarchy in Chinese companies
Chinese imperial history is seen to play out in the modern-day business realm. The operation of a company bears much resemblance to a Chinese dynastic empire that existed hundreds or thousands of years ago. A patriarchal and totalitarian system is central to corporate management style in a Chinese-owned company. Similarities abound between the empire and the company in areas ranging from the power core set-up, to emperor-minister (boss-manager) relationship, to behavioral patterns amongst ministers (managers).
The Chinese corporate boss, like the emperor, assumes absolute power over his company and is unlikely to relinquish it to his heirs until his death. It does not matter whether he is a Western educated MBA or just a high school graduate. As long as he is an ethnic Chinese, it is more likely than not that he considers himself the “emperor” of his company and treats his employees as though they were his subjects. He is the sole decision-making person and is accountable to no one within the company’s management hierarchy. It is highly unlikely that he would want to share his power with any one.
In the modern-day corporate arena, the Chinese boss plays the emperor’s role and acts in pretty much the same way. In this scenario, the role of dynastic ministers is taken by senior managers while that of subjects is taken by other staff members. To keep a tight rein on senior managers, the boss usually requires them to report in detail their activities in frequent regular meetings. They are expected to devote their heart and mind fully to serving the boss at all hours. Even then, the boss still would not trust his senior managers to take part in important decision making, not unless they have been with the company for at least twenty years.
In their contest for the boss’s attention, some senior managers spend far more time in engaging in slimy politics than doing real work within the corporate confines. Their chief aim is to please the boss and his clan (especially his spouse or lover, and sometimes his secretary) in whatever way they can, because that is the surest way of getting favors from him. In proving their worth to him, managers must do their best to discredit their rivals, either explicitly or furtively. They consider their peers as their natural enemies.
If one word can epitomize the interpersonal relationship within such a company, it is “distrust”, and it starts from the top. But it is hard to find an explanation for the everlasting lust for absolute power and absolute control.
3.2 Differences in Concepts and Values of America and Chinese Business Culture
The differences between American and Chinese business culture are extensive, particularly when it comes to direct communication between buyers and sellers. How well you understand Chinese and American business cultures can mean the difference between a successful career and a failed one.
Family Business Dynamic: In America, if an enterprise is said to be "family owned and operated", people typically think it is "cute" and "quaint". For the Chinese business culture, however, this is the norm. Business models are operated based on family obligations rather than the pursuit of riches, a custom that was strengthened by Confucianism.
Purpose of Business: In the Chinese business culture, the purpose of owning a business is to provide for one's family. In most cases, the business is run primarily by the dominant family head, to whom all other family members and employees defer. He is responsible for making important decisions, hiring new employees and executing changes. Unlike the American business culture, the Chinese don't follow an organized chain of command except for purposes of appearance. It isn't rare for a middle-management employee to take a question directly to the dominant family head, rather than observing protocol through the chain of command.
Financial Disclosure: Most large corporations in America are publicly traded, which means that they are also publicly scrutinized. The Chinese, on the other hand, are far more private about financial matters, and usually keep the majority of that information to themselves. They file their taxes, but keep a separate set of books for the dominant family head.
Sources of Financing: American businesses are funded largely by financial institutions, private lenders, and the sale of securities. Chinese businesses, on the other hand, are largely financed by the family. They might take out loans with friends of the family or use familial connections to secure investment funds, but they don't typically look outside private sources. Because of this, the Chinese business culture is based primarily on the informal impressions of the dominant family head. This extends not only into financing, but also executive decisions, hiring, firing and acquisitions.
Sales & Marketing: In America, the companies rely on advertising and monetary incentives for sales and marketing. Most of their efforts in this area are concentrated on monetary gain and the most cost-effective ways to get the word into the community. The Chinese business culture, however, is much different in that they garner most sales through family connections.
Future Business: The Chinese business culture is centered on long-term profitable relationships and family honor. While Americans look at the current bottom line and this month's profits, a Chinese business will be more likely to view each transaction as an investment in the future.
Mindset about management hierarchy: In American business culture, rank and title are not as important as in they are in China. Hierarchical forms of behavior are frowned upon. The expectation is that subordinates will speak up, offer suggestions, push back and take initiative rather than just do what they’re told. Decisions tend to be less top-down, authority is more delegated, and managers expect team members to take responsibility and assume ownership of results.
Attitudes towards appointments and deadlines: For Americans, strict adherence to time commitments is seen as a basic principle of professionalism and courteous behavior. Because everything tends to be strictly scheduled, delays in one appointment or deadline can have a seriou s ripple effect on a colleague or customer’s other work commitments. The more flexible and open-ended approach to time of Chinese business culture can create tensions and unfavorable impressions on American counterparts.
Meaning of agreements and commitments: Americans have a preference for clear, detailed agreements and are uneasy with vague expressions of general commitment. In business interactions, commitments are taken literally and seriously. Failure to follow through on them precisely is viewed as a sign that a person is not trustworthy. Chinese business culture tends to view agreements more flexibly as intentions and guidelines for future action.
Results vs. process orientation: In Chinese business culture, following the rules and implementing correct processes is highly valued, but in American business culture, it’s all about results. There is impatience with individuals who come across as more concerned with following established processes correctly than with achieving the desired goal. Americans don’t like to be told all the procedural reasons why something can’t be or has not been done.
Directness – especially in addressing disagreements: The American style of communication is characteristically direct, candid, and relatively unconcerned with face-saving or the avoidance of conflict. The expectation is that questions will get answered with a clear “yes” or “no”, and that disagreements will be dealt with openly and straightforwardly, in a “tell it like it is” manner. Chinese people tending to avoid conflict and loss of face often find it hard to say “no” or raise problematic issues effectively with their American counterparts.
4. Mutual-Adjustment of the Two Business Cultures
Cultural awareness and the ability to adapt effectively to another culture’s way of doing things are complex skills. Everyone tends to take his own cultural ways of doing things for granted, and to assume they are self-evident to others. The cost in terms of cross-cultural communication blunders, project delays, team conflicts and overall productivity is considerable. In a CIO Magazine survey not long ago, 51% of the CIOs reported that cultural differences were their greatest challenge in offshore outsourcing. The long-held belief that technical qualifications are sufficient to ensure project success – and that the shared engineering or other professional culture is stronger than national differences in work styles – is gradually crumbling in the face of the everyday on-the-ground experience of global multicultural teams in the offshore and outsourcing environment.
As the foremost “hot spot” for America’s offshore and outsourcing of technology and business services functions today, China presents an important case study of differences in business culture. Recurring themes and incidents have been found that point to underlying cross-cultural differences in mindset, values and approach to business interactions.
In recent years, American companies have shown growing awareness of the hidden costs of cross-cultural mismatches in work-related behaviors. They have been willing to invest in general and region-specific cross-cultural training for their onshore employees and those who are asked to travel to China. They have also learned to devise process accommodations to circumvent the negative effects of certain cultural tendencies in their offshore teams and Chinese business partners.
What these companies seldom undertake to address directly is the need to seriously educate their offshore teams and inform their Chinese business partners the fundamentals of American business culture – the attitudes, thought patterns and behavior norms that Americans expect.
There is competitive advantage to be gained through serious attention to improving the cultural competency of offshore teams and Chinese business partners. Training in “soft skills” is no longer as undervalued in China as it used to be. Growing numbers of Chinese companies are coming to realize that the ability of their employees to communicate and interact more effectively is an important competitive factor. American companies in China are also showing more keenness to develop the business and leadership skills of their Chinese employees, and to move gradually from the cheap labor or staff augmentation model to one where the Chinese operation is a value-adding center excellence.
Knowledge and internalization of the attitudes, thought patterns and behavior norms of American and Chinese business cultures is a necessary ingredient of this scenario for the future. For Americans who do business with the Chinese, it is essential to find out who maintains the most power in the organization and deal directly with him and it is important to maintain respectful distance concerning financial matters. It might be appropriate in America to bring up quarterly reports and other public information, but the Chinese don't appreciate forthright discussion of finances. It is important to establish a personal connection with whoever makes the most important decisions. Tokens of appreciation, phone calls to inquire about customer satisfaction, and in-person visits to express interest are the best ways to ensure repeat sales. This is why many American businesses that work with Chinese corporations require extensive international travel of their sales personnel. What’s more, Americans must learn how to cultivate long-term relationships with the Chinese. Continued satisfaction with products and services is essential, as is a continued personal bond with those in charge.
And for the Chinese counterparts, they should get to know more about American business culture. In the US, punctuality is an essential part of business etiquette and as such scheduled appointments or meetings must be attended on time. Americans perceive lateness as a sign of disrespect.
Deadlines are strictly adhered to in American business culture. Americans place great emphasis on getting the best results in the quickest time. American counterparts may appear to be hasty in their decision-making. This, however, is due to the fact that the concept “time is money” is taken extremely seriously in the US.
It is customary to begin and end business meetings with a brief but firm handshake. Maintaining direct eye contact during this initial greeting and whenever in conversation is also essential.
The exchanging of business cards is a casual affair in the US and as such demands no clear ritual or set of rules. Americans regard business cards as a resource for future information. On the occasions when they are exchanged, it may be done either during introductions or when leaving.
During negotiations, it is important to remember that the aim of most business discussions in the US is to arrive at a signed contract. Americans consider negotiations as problem-solving situations based on mutual benefit and personal strengths. Therefore, emphasis is placed on one’s financial position and power.
When doing business with American counterparts, it is expected to adhere to rules and guidelines that US business counterparts must also follow. Company policy and business procedures such as legally binding contracts, are aspects of American business culture that require strict compliancy.
5．Conclusion
In the 21st century, with the development of knowledge-based economy and globalization of economy, competition among corporation is reflected in the cultural competition. The business culture is playing an important role in corporate survival and development, and it has become the cornerstone and key factors in corporation competition. Taking a panoramic view of successful corporations, each one has its own deep culture, but culture is the darkest area, and also the most challenging aspect which reflects in the values, moral and communication methods. It is also reflected in the habits of the staff. This shows that business culture is closely related to the corporation survival and development. Building business culture will surely become a hot topic.
As mentioned above, the business culture is a powerful force. Some material resources will be exhausted but the cultural resources are endless. The business culture is an invisible productivity, intangible assets and wealth. The business culture will greatly promote the development of corporation. If a corporation can make the relation between corporation and business culture harmonious, sufficient and active, the business culture will prompt a long-term development for corporation development.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhou Yansha, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without his help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
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1.調(diào)整美術(shù)教育師資力量結(jié)構(gòu)
以往，由于科學(xué)技術(shù)的限制，很多美術(shù)教師和美術(shù)專家只能局限于某個學(xué)?；蛘吣硞€地區(qū)授課，學(xué)生對于外界的美術(shù)發(fā)展也沒有充分的認知和了解。而數(shù)字化時代的主要特點就是信息的共享和通訊的即時化，如此一來，學(xué)?？梢圆欢ㄆ诘仄赣脟鴥?nèi)外優(yōu)秀的美術(shù)專家教授對學(xué)生進行網(wǎng)絡(luò)授課，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的美術(shù)技能和美術(shù)修養(yǎng)，學(xué)生也可以通過計算機了解更多的美術(shù)信息，欣賞更多的優(yōu)秀美術(shù)作品?？傮w來說，數(shù)字化時代的美術(shù)教育師資力量結(jié)構(gòu)得到了進一步的優(yōu)化，教師隊伍的建設(shè)更加合理。
2.催生美術(shù)教學(xué)內(nèi)容的創(chuàng)新
一般來說，美術(shù)教育主要包括美術(shù)專業(yè)知識、美術(shù)專業(yè)技能、美術(shù)創(chuàng)意設(shè)計三個方面的內(nèi)容。在數(shù)字化時代，雖然教師的知識傳授仍然是學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)專業(yè)知識的主要途徑，但不是唯一的途徑，專業(yè)技能和創(chuàng)意設(shè)計在教學(xué)過程中具有越來越重要的地位。此外，學(xué)生知識信息的來源更加廣泛，這就要求美術(shù)教師必須時時刻刻更新教學(xué)內(nèi)容，補充教學(xué)資料，否則教師的知識信息將有可能落后于學(xué)生。該將哪些知識通過在線授課傳授給學(xué)生，又該將哪些內(nèi)容作為課題授課的重點，也是值得每一位美術(shù)教師研究思考的。數(shù)字化時代帶來的不僅僅是授課方式的變化，其更促使授課內(nèi)容朝著網(wǎng)絡(luò)授課和課堂授課兩個方向發(fā)展。
3.帶來更為廣闊的教學(xué)資源
如今，美術(shù)教師已經(jīng)不再抱著畫筆、畫板和課案來回奔波，開始更多地使用數(shù)字化技術(shù)產(chǎn)品——多媒體設(shè)施進行授課，主要原因就在于多媒體設(shè)施具有聯(lián)網(wǎng)的優(yōu)勢，可以讓教師隨時調(diào)動全球優(yōu)秀藝術(shù)大師的作品供學(xué)生欣賞，使教學(xué)資源不再局限于課堂之內(nèi)。如，以往講授歐美印象派的相關(guān)美術(shù)作品時，教師只能通過文字讓學(xué)生感受其美術(shù)作品的特點或者準備一些照片讓學(xué)生觀察，但在數(shù)字化時代，教師可以通過互聯(lián)網(wǎng)技術(shù)搜索該畫派的著名作品，可以通過網(wǎng)絡(luò)即時與學(xué)生交流。另外，現(xiàn)在很多藝術(shù)館都有自己的網(wǎng)絡(luò)平臺，教師可以通過這些平臺了解最新的藝術(shù)動向，進而提高學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的有效性和針對性?？梢哉f，數(shù)字化時代的教學(xué)資源使得美術(shù)教育擺脫了閉門造車的教學(xué)方式，有利于教師利用全球的教學(xué)資源促進美術(shù)教育的發(fā)展。
4.促進美術(shù)教學(xué)形式的改革
目前，美術(shù)教育以班級教育為主，但是由于美術(shù)教育的特點，師徒傳授在美術(shù)教育中仍或多或少地存在，從本質(zhì)上來說，師徒傳授對于培養(yǎng)優(yōu)秀的美術(shù)人才有著巨大的作用，但是這種教育方式會造成教學(xué)資源的浪費。隨著數(shù)字化時代的到來，師徒傳授和班級教學(xué)完美結(jié)合的可能性出現(xiàn)了，使用數(shù)字化產(chǎn)品，可以在發(fā)揮班級授課的信息交流優(yōu)勢的同時，突出個別化培養(yǎng)藝術(shù)個性的特點。如網(wǎng)絡(luò)論壇組織上的討論交流、電子郵件的作業(yè)修改等，這些方式既保留了班級授課的優(yōu)點，也在一定程度上拓展了教學(xué)形式，使學(xué)生更加具有自己的藝術(shù)個性。
二、數(shù)字化時代美術(shù)教育的社會責(zé)任
1.倡導(dǎo)精英文化的建設(shè)
在社會主義精神文明建設(shè)中，一個重要的建設(shè)內(nèi)容就是要提高廣大人民的審美能力，這是社會發(fā)展的必然結(jié)果，也是社會發(fā)展的必然要求。在物質(zhì)生活條件極大滿足的今天，我們必須積極主動地發(fā)現(xiàn)生活之美，挖掘生活之美的精神文化內(nèi)涵，而這些都需要藝術(shù)作為基礎(chǔ)，因為在生活中，美是無處不在的，但又是難以發(fā)現(xiàn)的，如黃金分割、色彩的對比、色彩的情感等都是藝術(shù)在生活中的具體體現(xiàn)。因此，美術(shù)教育并不是單純地培養(yǎng)優(yōu)秀的美術(shù)人才，而要放眼整個社會，為社會審美能力的培養(yǎng)提供豐厚的土壤，使美術(shù)教育與數(shù)字化技術(shù)相結(jié)合。
2.構(gòu)建藝術(shù)化的社會環(huán)境
培養(yǎng)美術(shù)人才、使美術(shù)理念深入人心、提高全民藝術(shù)修養(yǎng)是現(xiàn)代美術(shù)教育的主要目標。隨著美術(shù)教育改革的不斷進行與各種最新的數(shù)字化產(chǎn)品應(yīng)用于美術(shù)教育，一些人迷失于先進的科技當(dāng)中，忽略了藝術(shù)的本質(zhì)。之所以出現(xiàn)這種思想，主要原因在于藝術(shù)和科技之間本身存在一道鴻溝，藝術(shù)具有高雅的屬性，而科技從本質(zhì)上來說是人類追求物質(zhì)生活的一種體現(xiàn)，是屬于世俗的，二者的結(jié)合固然使得美術(shù)教育出現(xiàn)了跨越式的發(fā)展，但是其固有的矛盾也使得美術(shù)教育的未來充滿不確定性。這就要求當(dāng)下的美術(shù)教育以學(xué)校專業(yè)教育為基礎(chǔ)，以提高全民的藝術(shù)修養(yǎng)為目標，構(gòu)建一個藝術(shù)化的社會環(huán)境，實現(xiàn)藝術(shù)與科技的共同發(fā)展。
3.適應(yīng)數(shù)字化時代的生活
數(shù)字化時代的到來雖然給美術(shù)教育的發(fā)展帶來了很多機遇，但是也給美術(shù)教育帶來了很大的挑戰(zhàn)，其中最大的挑戰(zhàn)就是數(shù)字化時代帶來的信息浪潮。海量的信息在給美術(shù)教育帶來方便的同時，也使師生難以從中尋找有用的信息。對于這種情況，當(dāng)下的美術(shù)教育者不能將目光局限于美術(shù)專業(yè)知識的傳授，更要幫助學(xué)生主動學(xué)習(xí)新的知識，掌握科技的發(fā)展動向，只有這樣才能夠保證學(xué)生在畢業(yè)之后適應(yīng)數(shù)字化時代的生活，才能保證學(xué)生能夠深刻地領(lǐng)會和運用現(xiàn)代設(shè)計思想、設(shè)計手段和設(shè)計方法。
三、數(shù)字化時代的美術(shù)教育
1.充分認識數(shù)字化技術(shù)的優(yōu)勢
在過去，無論美術(shù)教育如何變革，畫板、畫筆和顏料都是必不可少的，無論是美術(shù)教師還是學(xué)生，在繪畫的過程中都很容易受到外在環(huán)境的干擾，有時候辛苦了很長時間才能完成的一幅作品，受到一點外在因素的影響便毀于一旦，這并不僅僅是繪畫作品的損失，更是美術(shù)教育的一次中斷。而數(shù)字化時代的美術(shù)教育的最大特點就是以鼠標和屏幕取代了傳統(tǒng)的畫筆和畫板，通過在電腦上進行繪畫不僅不易造成畫面的污損，還可以根據(jù)需要對繪畫作品進行復(fù)制并進行大規(guī)模的傳播，從而提高了繪畫作品的藝術(shù)宣傳效果，這也是數(shù)字化技術(shù)的最大優(yōu)勢。
2.借助數(shù)字化技術(shù)提高美術(shù)素養(yǎng)
提高美術(shù)素養(yǎng)是一個難度大、耗時長的過程。在美術(shù)教育期間內(nèi)，學(xué)生不僅要學(xué)會相關(guān)的美術(shù)知識和美術(shù)技能，更要提高自身的美術(shù)素養(yǎng)，毫無疑問，這是一件較為困難的事情。無論是美術(shù)技能水平還是美術(shù)素養(yǎng)的提高，都需要經(jīng)過長期的繪畫實踐，這就需要大量的時間，有時候一幅繪畫作品需要十天半個月才能夠完成，而在繪畫的過程中，繪畫所花費的時間可能還沒有顏料調(diào)色等工作花費的多。借助數(shù)字化技術(shù)，學(xué)生就可以擺脫反復(fù)的繪畫練習(xí)過程，將顏料調(diào)色等耗時費力的工作交給電腦完成，自己將更多的精力放在作品畫面的構(gòu)圖與造型技巧的鍛煉上，如此一來，學(xué)生的專業(yè)美術(shù)技能就會得到很好的強化。同時，由于數(shù)字化技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展，現(xiàn)在很多繪畫軟件不斷完善，學(xué)生可以通過繪畫軟件完成許多大師的技巧，這可以使學(xué)生通過模仿繪畫大師，從而提高其美術(shù)素養(yǎng)。
3.數(shù)字化教學(xué)與傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)并重
[關(guān)鍵詞]政治美學(xué)，儒家，秩序，儒表法里
一、緒論
對于政治審美化的研究，是當(dāng)下學(xué)術(shù)界的一個重要課題，正如德國學(xué)者韋爾施所說：“美學(xué)喪失了作為一門特殊學(xué)科，專同藝術(shù)結(jié)盟的特征，而成為理解現(xiàn)實的一個更廣泛、也更普遍的媒介。”這導(dǎo)致審美思維在今天變得舉足輕重起來，美學(xué)這門學(xué)科的結(jié)構(gòu)，隨之等待改變，以使它成為超越傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)，將“美學(xué)”的方方面面全部囊括進來。美學(xué)對人類其他生活領(lǐng)域的關(guān)注不僅是現(xiàn)代美學(xué)學(xué)科自身發(fā)展的必然走向，也是美學(xué)實踐品格得以完滿實現(xiàn)的重要途徑。
本文通過文獻法，分析法等研究方法，期望通過對“政治美學(xué)”概念的多元化的闡述使大眾更加能認知“政治美學(xué)”這個概念；期望通過對“政治美學(xué)”這種概念誕生前的歷史追溯，發(fā)掘它所存在的社會基礎(chǔ)與美學(xué)價值；期望通過“政治美學(xué)”美學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)分析的闡釋，展示其歷史存在中的價值體系；最后通過前面一系列的闡述找尋它存在的美學(xué)功能價值。達到使人們正視“政治美學(xué)”，認識到其積極的社會價值，從而促進它對現(xiàn)代社會的發(fā)展和作用，讓人們認識到它存在的合理意義。
二、何為“政治美學(xué)”
政治美學(xué)，不是指政治化了的美學(xué)，而是對“政治本身所蘊涵的美學(xué)方面進行研究，探究政治意識形態(tài)、政治制度、政治權(quán)力運作、政治變遷等方面所包含的美學(xué)奧秘”。1政治美學(xué)概念的提出并非心血來潮，政治與美學(xué)的聯(lián)姻自古而然。
政治本身就是審美的一種特殊表現(xiàn)，政治意識形態(tài)、政治制度、權(quán)力運作、政治家的風(fēng)格，所有都表現(xiàn)出美學(xué)的精神和其美學(xué)價值。意識形態(tài)對于現(xiàn)實與未來構(gòu)建了種種“想象的共同體”，把特殊群體、階級、集團的利益、情感與意志、觀念凈化與升華為人類的普遍理想與共通情感。政治統(tǒng)治的美學(xué)奧秘在于使權(quán)力成為魅力，權(quán)力結(jié)構(gòu)進入情感結(jié)構(gòu)。政治的等級結(jié)構(gòu)深刻地表現(xiàn)為審美的一種價值結(jié)構(gòu)。政治權(quán)力滲透著人的感性生存實踐的各個方面，成為人們視、聽、言、動的根據(jù)和規(guī)范；對權(quán)力的視覺分析可以推及到人的整個感性活動之中。
三、政治美學(xué)的歷史追溯
3.1 社會階級的意識形態(tài)
中國古代政治結(jié)構(gòu)與意識形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu)受儒家思想影響甚深，從儒家政治思想入手，應(yīng)該是研究古代政治思想史之首選。
從政即意味著“士”將自己所學(xué)到的倫理道德規(guī)范運用到政治領(lǐng)域，教化一方百姓。舉凡研究古代政治思想史的著作或論文，在論及儒家政治思想時，也大都以“德治”視之。因此儒家政治思想被歸之為倫理政治學(xué)。然而，如果僅僅局限于這種“倫理政治”的思維范式，儒家政治思想的研究便很難有新的突破。眾所周知，在國家的治理與政治運作上，與名家、法家過于硬性的制度、法律規(guī)范相比，儒家則顯得柔和得多。不管我們對中國歷代社會政治的共同特征“儒表法里”做怎樣的評價，儒家與法家截然不同的政治理念卻是顯而易見的。儒家的政治倫理是一種由夫婦到父母，到君臣，繼而參贊乎天地宇宙的政治文化設(shè)想。在以血緣為基礎(chǔ)的家國同構(gòu)思想的政治架構(gòu)下，滲入以禮樂文化的政治運作。這種政治倫理建構(gòu)不僅取決于中國古代的農(nóng)耕文化，實際上也體現(xiàn)了由內(nèi)而外、由親而疏、由己及人的情感表達，最終展現(xiàn)出來的是超倫理而入審美的天地境界。這也是天人合一的和諧之境，是“和合文化”在儒家政治思想中的最高體現(xiàn)。
四、儒家政治美學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)分析
4.1 仁：儒家政治意識形態(tài)的美學(xué)特征
在政治形象工程的設(shè)計中，意識形態(tài)的構(gòu)建應(yīng)是首當(dāng)其沖的。所謂“得人心者得天下”，意識形態(tài)即是一種“人心工程”。意識形態(tài)乃至政治的重要因素，任何政治學(xué)說體系都有其所依賴的意識形態(tài)。正是意識形態(tài)的不同，決定了不同政治學(xué)說的性質(zhì)。儒家政治學(xué)說的意識形態(tài)，我們認為就是“仁”的思想，所以，儒家的政治思想通常又被成為“仁政”?！叭收弊鳛樾g(shù)語是由孟子第一次提出的，這是對孔子“仁”的思想的一次在政治領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的推進與提升。
五、政治美學(xué)的功能
5.1 政治美學(xué)的秩序感
正如中外思想家所共同認識到的，政治產(chǎn)生于人類生活的缺陷，也可以說是產(chǎn)生于人性的缺陷。在中西方的古代著作廣泛論述中，往往認為政治產(chǎn)生于“惡”之中，是“惡之花”。
儒家政治與美的任務(wù)就是給人類建構(gòu)這種良好的秩序。儒家政治與美學(xué)，就是參照同一事物的不同角度，或者說描述相同事情的不同話語和方法；由于參照、描述的角度和方法的不同，它們所掌握的內(nèi)容當(dāng)然也不同。儒家正是體現(xiàn)人的感性生存的一切方面，都與具體而微的形形的權(quán)力分不開，它制約著、規(guī)范著、熔鑄了人的感性結(jié)構(gòu)，把權(quán)力統(tǒng)治深入到人的神經(jīng)末梢。
5.2 政治美學(xué)對現(xiàn)代的啟迪
儒家思想自產(chǎn)生之日起就頗受矚目，其側(cè)重社會取向的價值觀，富有倫理特色的政治觀，追求自我完善的道德觀，在中國封建時代長期成為官方的統(tǒng)治思想。儒家思想，在世界觀方面，它是理性的；在人生目的方面，它是功利的；在處理人際關(guān)系的態(tài)度方面，它是和諧的。凡此都與現(xiàn)代社會的觀念有著相似或相通的地方。所以說，在市場經(jīng)濟的今天，儒家思想依然有其正面的價值和積極的影響。可以說，儒家思想是構(gòu)建社會主義市場經(jīng)濟倫理不可或缺的重要思想資源，挖掘它的積極面，對市場經(jīng)濟有著建設(shè)性作用，對現(xiàn)代管理也具有重要的借鑒意義。